Prominent among organisms that foul water-borne vessels are sedentary cnidarians, especially hydroids. The muscles that make scyphomedusae strong swimmers are dried for human consumption in Asia. Sea anemones are eaten in some areas of Asia and North America.

Throughout the tropics where reefs are accessible, coral skeletons are used as building material, either in blocks or slaked to create cement. Another use for cnidarian skeletons is in jewelry. The pink colour known as “coral” is the hue of the skeleton of a species of hydrocoral. Other hydrocorals have purplish skeletons. Skeletons vary in hue, and those considered most desirable command a high price. The core of some sea fans, sea whips, and black corals are cut or bent into beads, bracelets, and cameos.

All cnidarians have the potential to affect human physiology owing to the toxicity of their nematocysts. Most are not harmful to humans, but some can impart a painful sting—such as Physalia, the Portuguese man-of-war, and sea anemones of the genus Actinodendron. These, and even normally innocuous species, can be deadly in a massive dose or to a sensitive person, but the only cnidarians commonly fatal to humans are the cubomedusae, or box jellyfish. Anaphylaxis (hypersensitivity due to prior exposure and subsequent sensitization) was discovered with experiments on Physalia toxin. Extracts of many cnidarians, mostly anthozoans, have heart-stimulant, antitumour, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Reproduction and life cycles

All cnidarian species are capable of sexual reproduction, which occurs in only one phase of the life cycle, usually the medusa. Many cnidarians also reproduce asexually, which may occur in both phases. In asexual reproduction, new individuals arise from bits of tissue that are budded off from a parent, or by a parent dividing lengthwise or crosswise into two smaller individuals. Polyps that remain physically attached to one another or embedded in a common mass of tissue constitute a colony. In some colonies, polyps share a common coelenteron through which food captured by any member is distributed to others. Hydrozoan polyp colonies, called hydroids, are prostrate, bushy, or feathery in form. Examples of other colonies are anthozoan soft corals and most reef-forming hard corals. Polyps that are produced asexually and then physically separate are called clones, or ramets. In this way, a single genotype can be represented by many separate “individuals.”

Although genetically identical, colony members of many hydrozoans and some anthozoans are polymorphic, differing in morphology (form and structure) and/or physiology. Each zooid within the colony has a specific function and varies somewhat in form. For example, gastrozooids bear tentacles and are specialized for feeding. Some colonies possess dactylozooids, tentacleless polyps heavily armed with nematocysts that seem primarily concerned with defense. Gonozooids develop reproductive structures called gonophores. Members of the order Siphonophora, free-floating colonial hydrozoans, display an even greater variety of polymorphs. These include gas-filled floats called pneumatophores, pulsating, locomotory structures called nectophores, and flattened, protective individuals called bracts or phyllozooids.

Although the medusa stage is absent in anthozoans, polyps produce additional polyps sexually and, in some species, asexually as well. Hydromedusae are budded from polyps that, in some colonial species, are specialized for this function; each polyp produces numerous medusae. The major distinguishing feature of the cubozoans is that each polyp transforms entirely into a medusa. Before this metamorphosis occurs, however, each cubozoan polyp may divide asexually to produce numerous genetically identical polyps, and each of these subsequent polyps can then produce a medusa. In most scyphozoans, a scyphistoma (scyphopolyp) produces immature medusae (ephyrae) by asexual fission at its oral end. This process, called strobilation, results in eight-armed, free-swimming ephyrae.

Gametes differentiate in parts of the body referred to as gonads, despite the fact that cnidarians cannot be said to have true ovaries and testes because they lack organs. In anthozoans, cubozoans, and scyphozoans, gametes develop in the endoderm, whereas in hydrozoans they ripen in the ectoderm, although they do not necessarily originate there. Sexes are commonly separate, but hermaphroditism is known. Some hermaphroditic species are capable of self-fertilization. Gametes are generally shed into the sea, where the eggs are fertilized. Cleavage produces a ciliated ball of cells that elongates and develops a tuft of cilia at one end to become a planula larva, which may be free-swimming and planktonic, or crawling and benthic. Its ciliated tuft, which may have sensory abilities, is directed forward in locomotion. After a motile period, the planula attaches by its forward end to a solid object and develops tentacles around its posterior end, thereby transforming into a polyp. In some anthozoans and a few scyphomedusae, eggs are fertilized without being released. Embryonic development passes either partly or entirely within the mother’s coelenteron or, as in the case of some anemones and some members of the anthozoan subclass Alcyonaria (octocorals), attached to the outside of her body. In some species of hydroids that lack a free medusa stage, eggs are fertilized and the embryo develops in specialized zooids that are essentially attached medusae. Such brooding species may release offspring as very advanced larvae or as miniature adults, so that a planktonic stage is absent from the life cycle.

Ecology and habitats

Most polyps require solid substrata for attachment, although a few burrow into soft sediments, extending only their tentacular crowns above the surface. Polyps are abundant in shallow waters, but sea anemones can also occur in the deepest parts of the oceans. Medusae maintain a favoured depth in the water and are carried about by currents. Most hydromedusae and scyphomedusae live in surface waters, generally in bays and along coasts, but certain species are abundant in the open ocean.

The nematocysts of cnidarians restrict potential predators to a limited array of specialists. Nematocysts also allow cnidarians to prey on a variety of would-be competitors for space and food. Most species that are capable of monopolizing space reproduce predominantly asexually. A coral, for example, can cover an area rapidly and commonly has the ability to overgrow other organisms, including corals of other species. Clone-forming sea anemones of several species actively compete for space by killing others, primarily those of their own species. When members of one clone encounter those of another, the two combatants inflate and slap one another with nematocyst-studded fighting structures (acrorhagi) located below the tentacles. Attacks may result in the death of one of the anemones, or both may retreat. Tentacle touching is involved in the recognition of non-clonemates, which presumably is chemically mediated.

Cnidarians are not immune from predation. Hydroids are victimized by nudibranchs that bite through the chitinous skeleton or crawl into its openings. The crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, extrudes its stomach over a coral colony, releases digestive enzymes, and then absorbs the liquified tissue. Butterfly and parrot fishes eat corals, being insensitive to the effects of nematocysts, which is also true of marine turtles that feed on pelagic scyphomedusae. To combat these types of threats, many cnidarian species have evolved unique chemical defenses that effectively deter predation by fish and others.