syllogistic

syllogistic, in logic, the formal analysis of logical terms and operators and the structures that make it possible to infer true conclusions from given premises. Developed in its original form by Aristotle in his Prior Analytics (Analytica priora) about 350 bce, syllogistic represents the earliest branch of formal logic.

A brief treatment of syllogistic follows. For full treatment, see history of logic: Aristotle.

As currently understood, syllogistic comprises two domains of investigation. Categorical syllogistic, with which Aristotle concerned himself, confines itself to simple declarative statements and their variation with respect to modalities, or expressions of necessity and possibility. Noncategorical syllogistic is a form of logical inference using whole propositions as its units, an approach traceable to the Stoic logicians but not fully appreciated as a separate branch of syllogistic until the work of John Neville Keynes in the 19th century.

Knowing the truth or falsity of any given premises or conclusions does not enable one to determine the validity of an inference. In order to understand the validity of an argument, it is necessary to grasp its logical form. Traditional categorical syllogistic is the study of this problem. It begins by reducing all propositions to four basic forms.

Respectively, these forms are known as A, E, I, and O propositions, after the vowels in the Latin terms affirmo and nego. This distinction between affirmation and negation is said to be one of quality, while the difference between the universal scope of the first two forms, in contrast to the particular scope of the last two forms, is said to be one of quantity.

The expressions that fill the blanks of these propositions are called terms. These may be singular (Mary) or general (women). A very important distinction with respect to the use of general terms turns on whether their extensional or intensional attributes are in play; extension designates the set of individuals to which a term applies, while intension describes the set of attributes which define the term. The term that fills the first blank is called the subject of the proposition, that which fills the second is the predicate.

Using the notation of the early 20th-century logician Jan Łukasiewicz, the general terms or term variables can be expressed as lowercase Latin letters a, b, and c, with capitals reserved for the four syllogistic operators that specify A, E, I, and O propositions. The proposition “Every b is an a” is now written “Aba”; “Some b is an a” is written “Iba”; “No b is an a” is written “Eba”; and “Some b is not an a” is written “Oba.” Careful examination of the relations obtaining between these propositions reveals that the following are true for any terms a and b.

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Not both: Aba and Eba.

If Aba, then Iba.

If Eba, then Oba.

Either Iba or Oba.

Aba is equivalent to the negation of Oba.

Eba is equivalent to the negation of Iba.

Reversing the order of the terms yields the simple converse of a proposition, but when in addition an A proposition is changed to an I, or an E to an O, the result is called the limited converse of the original. The logical relations holding between propositions and their converses, often pictured graphically in a square of opposition, are as follows: E and I propositions are equivalent or equipollent to their simple converses (i.e., Eba and Iba are the same as Eab and Iab, respectively). An A proposition Aba, although not equivalent to its simple converse Aab, implies, but is not implied by, its limited converse Iab. This kind of inference is traditionally called conversio per accidens and holds as well in Eba implying Oab. In contrast, Oba neither implies nor is implied by Oab, and this is expressed by saying that O propositions do not convert. When a proposition is posed against the proposition that results from changing its quality at the same time that its second term is negated, the resulting equivalence is called obversion. A last type of inference is called contraposition and is produced by the fact that some propositions imply the proposition that results from the original proposition when both of its term variables are negated and their order reversed.

A categorical syllogism infers a conclusion from two premises. It is defined by the following four attributes. Each of the three propositions is an A, E, I, or O proposition. The subject of the conclusion (called the minor term) also occurs in one of the premises (the minor premise). The predicate of the conclusion (called the major term) also occurs in the other premise (the major premise). The two remaining term positions in the premises are filled by the same term (the middle term). Since each of the three propositions in a syllogism can take one of four combinations of quality and quantity, the categorical syllogism may exhibit any of 64 moods. Each mood may occur in any of four figures—patterns of terms within the propositions—thus yielding 256 possible forms. One of the important tasks of syllogistic has been to reduce this plurality to just the valid forms.

Aristotle accepted 14 valid moods officially and 5 unofficially; since 5 of these 19 syllogisms have universal conclusions, the number of valid moods can be increased to 24 by passing to their corresponding particular propositions (i.e., from “all” to “some”). Employing an axiomatic system in which proof was by direct reduction and indirect reduction or reductio ad impossibile, Aristotle was able to reduce all syllogisms to those of the first figure. Today, in order to admit terms regardless of their emptiness or nonemptiness, syllogistic has become a special case of Boolean algebra in which the concepts of universal class and null class, along with the operations of class union and class intersection, are incorporated. From this standpoint the number of moods is 15. These 15 moods are the theorems of the syllogistic when interpreted in the predicate calculus.

Noncategorical syllogisms are either hypothetical or disjunctive, to which some treatments add a class of copulative syllogisms. Their treatment is distinguished from categorical syllogistic by the fact that the latter is a predicate logic analyzing terms in combination, while noncategorical syllogistic is a propositional logic that treats unanalyzed entire propositions as its units. Hypothetical syllogisms in which all propositions are of the form “p ⊃ q” (i.e., “p implies q”) are called pure, as opposed to mixed hypothetical syllogisms that have one hypothetical and one categorical premise and a categorical conclusion. These latter have two valid moods. Disjunctive syllogisms are composed by an “either…or” operator and have two important moods. In the 20th century the understanding of noncategorical syllogisms was extended to encompass complex and compound propositions as well as the dilemma with its constructive and destructive moods.