hoax

hoax, a falsehood generally intended to fool and to entertain. A hoax is often a parody of some occurrence or a play upon topics that are newsworthy. Media hoaxes are among the most common type.

Early history

Recorded cases of hoaxes can be found from at least the 1600s, when the nature of information dispersal and news gathering made the creation and dissemination of hoaxes relatively easy. In most cases, information was presented without comment. Readers were left to determine validity on what seemed plausible to them based on conventional wisdom, religious beliefs, or scientific discovery. Much of what was known scientifically, however, was built upon speculation, not upon scientific inquiry. As a result, what might be considered hoaxes based on present understanding was simply the passing on of information. When Benjamin Franklin, for example, reported in the October 17, 1745, edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette that a medicine made from a substance called "Chinese Stones" could cure rabies, cancer, and a host of other ailments, verification of the medicine’s potency was based on personal testimony. A letter to the Gazette the next week, however, revealed that the stones were made from deer antlers and contained no medicinal value. Similar hoaxes passed regularly as news stories or in advertising for patent medicine until the creation of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration curtailed many of them in the early 20th century.

Author Jonathan Swift used hoaxes to tell stories. Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World (1726), more commonly known as Gulliver’s Travels, purported to be the true story of the travels of Lemuel Gulliver. In 1708 Swift predicted the death of a famous astrologer in an almanac using the fictitious name Isaac Bickerstaff. On the appointed day, Swift printed a black-bordered elegy to the astronomer. Two days later, he published a pamphlet extolling the prediction. Swift later said that he created the hoax to discredit the man’s astrological predictions. Swift’s hoax was set to coincide with April Fools’ Day, and ever since the media and others have regularly created fictitious, nonharmful hoaxes for the day.

Edgar Allan Poe also often employed the hoax as a tool for storytelling. As editor of the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond, Virginia, he notably published (1835) “The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall,” in which he presented as a news account the story of a man who, he claimed, had flown in a hot-air balloon to the Moon and stayed there for five years.

Stories of human abnormalities and oddities regularly appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1765 a story about the possible existence of giants swept Britain and then the American colonies. The account, which appeared in the Maryland Gazette, told of a tomb in France that contained “a human Skeleton entire, 25 Feet and a Half long, 10 Feet wide across the Shoulders, and five Feet deep from the Breast Bone to the Back.”

The Great Moon Hoax, the Cardiff Giant, and P.T. Barnum

The bases for creating hoaxes grew tremendously in the first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, only two scientific societies existed in the United States. By the 1820s, dozens operated, 26 in New York City alone. These societies turned to the press to announce their discoveries. Twenty-four different societies regularly published findings in journals by the mid-1820s, and a number of these articles also appeared in newspapers.

Subject to widespread hoax treatment were astronomical “discoveries,” and one of the most notable was the Great Moon Hoax. In 1835 New York’s The Sun ran a series of news accounts that falsely attributed discoveries to Sir John Herschel, the son of Sir William Herschel, who discovered the planet Uranus. A Sun reporter alleged that the younger Herschel had observed all sorts of life on the Moon, including winged human creatures about four feet tall, covered with short and glossy copper-colored hair. The news accounts were widely believed, due in part to certain truthful elements—Herschel was a noted British astronomer, and the article referenced The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, an actual periodical. In addition, the science of the day assumed that extraterrestrial life existed; life on the moon was taken for granted by many. Once the elaborate hoax was revealed, people blasted the Sun and its owner, Benjamin Day. However, neither Day nor the Sun ever admitted that the story was a fabrication. Indeed, Day published illustrated pamphlets on the topic a couple of months after the story first appeared.

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Perhaps the greatest hoax in terms of human discovery occurred in 1869 with the unearthing of the Cardiff Giant in upstate New York. Reports described the Cardiff Giant as a complete man, “A human form of huge proportions, entirely petrified.” The figure was approximately 10 feet (3-metres) tall, according to a story in the Daily National Intelligencer and Washington Express. In reality, the giant was the creation of George Hull. The story was, in part, an outgrowth of the growing debate on biblical literalism versus the evolutionary concepts introduced by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859). The discovery, news reports said, proved Genesis 6:4, which said that at one time “the Nephilim (giants) were on the earth.” Hull sold his giant to a group of entrepreneurs who put it on public display. Scientists studied the remains, and many, notably paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, determined that it was a fraud. Despite such denunciations, throngs of people paid to see the original Cardiff Giant, and others, including P.T. Barnum, created their own versions. Thanks to the massive interest in the “discovery,” the Cardiff Giant has been dubbed the greatest hoax in newspaper history.

Not all 19th-century hoaxes were harmless. On November 9, 1874, James Gordon Bennett, Jr., ran a story on the front page of the New York Herald saying that animals had escaped from the city’s zoo and had killed 49 people and injured hundreds. Many readers never finished the story, which stated at the end that it was “pure fabrication.” Instead, people ran into the streets with guns or fired them randomly from windows.

Advertising in the 19th century created some of the most elaborate hoaxes, and a number of them were the work of Barnum. In 1835 he purchased a slave named Joice Heth and promoted her as the 161-year-old nurse of George Washington. Seven years later Barnum presented the Feejee (or Fiji) Mermaid by tricking dozens of papers to run stories about it simultaneously. In reality, the mermaid had been created by sewing the tail of a fish to a monkey’s upper body. The stories tripled the number of people who paid to visit Barnum’s New York City exhibit.

Early in 1860 Barnum created another elaborate hoax, this one based in current events. Just months after the release of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, Barnum introduced "What Is It?" Promoted as the missing link between ape and man, the exhibit really featured one William Henry Johnson, a native of Bound Brook, New Jersey. This so-called evolutionary missing link became a tool in the 1860 presidential race with editorial cartoons claiming that the election of Abraham Lincoln would ensure that an African American would soon become president.

The 20th century and beyond

Broadcast hoaxes have been less common than those in print. The rush to break important information, however, ensures that some hoaxes will be broadcast. For example, on November 5, 1991, the ABC program World News Tonight with Peter Jennings reported the impending sale of Vladimir Lenin’s corpse in a Russian effort to raise money. USA Today also ran the story, which was later discounted.

Internet hoaxes are easier to create than those on traditional media as anyone can create a webpage or post information to blogs. Countless posts on the Internet and sent via e-mail have carried inaccurate news stories and columns, let alone purposeful hoaxes.