Verneuil process

Verneuil process, method for producing synthetic rubies and sapphires. Originally developed (1902) by a French chemist, Auguste Verneuil, the process produces a boule (a mass of alumina with the same physical and chemical characteristics as corundum) from finely ground alumina (Al₂O₃) by means of an inverted oxyhydrogen torch that opens into a ceramic muffle. With slight modifications, this method is used to produce spinel, rutile, and strontium titanate.

Highly purified alumina is placed in a container with a fine sieve at its base. When the container is tapped by a mechanically-activated hammer, the alumina sifts down into the enclosed chamber. Oxygen passes into this chamber and carries the fine alumina particles into the intense heat of the central part of an oxyhydrogen flame, where they fuse and fall on the molten upper surface of the boule as droplets. Flame characteristics and the rate of powder feed and boule lowering are adjusted to produce a boule of uniform diameter. The temperature of the upper surface of the boule is held just above the melting point, which for colourless sapphire is 2,030° C (about 3,690° F). When a boule reaches the desired size, normally 150 to 200 carats, the furnace is shut down, and the boule is cooled.

Strain develops during cooling, because the outer surface cools faster than the interior; this phenomenon causes considerable loss from cracking during the manufacturing process. The strain is relieved by splitting the boule longitudinally, which is induced by snapping off its elongated stem. Some residual strain not disadvantageous for gem and most industrial uses is left in the half-boule developed by splitting. Strain-free, whole boules may be produced by annealing at 1,950° C.

Synthetic corundum.

Before 1940 all synthetic corundum was made in Switzerland, Germany, and France. For several years after the discovery of the process of manufacture, all of the production was used for gemstones. Synthetic ruby was the chief product and was produced by using an intimate mixture of aluminum and chromium oxides; 5 percent chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃) yields a pale-pink boule and 6 percent a deep-red one. The higher the percentage of chromium oxide, the more difficult it is to control boule growth and the greater the loss from cracking on cooling. Blue sapphire is produced by adding iron and titanium, green by cobalt, and yellow by nickel and magnesium oxides.

Star rubies and sapphires, first developed in 1947 in the United States, are made by adding one percent rutile (titanium oxide, TiO₂) to the starting powder, forming the boules in the usual manner, and then heat treating them at temperatures between 1,100° C and 1,500° C. The rutile forms small needlelike crystals that are oriented along the hexagonal crystal planes within the boule; these are similar to the same crystals in natural star sapphire. The synthetic gems have sharper and more distinctly developed stars than the natural crystals.

It is very difficult to distinguish between natural and synthetic colourless sapphires. The natural crystals have microscopic irregularly-shaped gas and liquid inclusions, whereas the synthetic gems usually show microscopic cracks along and normal to the intersection of facets. Under the microscope, coloured synthetic stones show curved lines parallel to the upper growth surface of the boule. They represent uneven distribution of pigmentation. Occasionally, especially in blue sapphire, they are visible to the unaided eye.

Synthetic spinel.

Spinel boules have a square cross section with round corners but otherwise are like corundum boules in manufacture, size, and appearance, although they do not develop internal stresses during cooling. They are made in all colours by adding appropriate pigments.

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Synthetic rutile.

Synthetic rutile, first produced in 1948 by the Verneuil process, is far superior to the natural material as a gemstone, because natural rutile is dark in colour and the pure synthetic boules may be produced in nearly any shade by the addition of appropriate pigments. Rutile boules have a square cross section similar to spinel boules but rarely exceed 100 carats in weight. When removed from the furnace they are black in colour, because some titanium is still unoxidized; on heating in an oxygen atmosphere, however, the oxygen is slowly absorbed and the colour fades until only a faint yellow tinge remains in unpigmented boules.