United States campaign-finance laws
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- Brett Kavanaugh
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- United States
- election
- campaign finance
- election law
United States campaign-finance laws, in the United States, laws that regulate the amounts of money political candidates or parties may receive from individuals or organizations and the cumulative amounts that individuals or organizations can donate. Such laws also define who is eligible to make political contributions and what sorts of activities constitute in-kind contributions.
This article discusses campaign-finance laws in the United States. For treatment of the rationale of campaign-finance regulation and discussion of laws enacted in other countries, see campaign finance.
There have been four major periods of U.S. campaign-finance regulation in the past century: the era before the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971 and its subsequent amendments; the era from 1974 to 2002, when FECA regulated campaigns; the era following the enactment of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002; and the era following Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that struck down crucial provisions of the BCRA.
Before FECA, campaign-finance laws were mainly addressed to particular types of contributors. By 1947, federal employees, corporations, and labour unions were barred from making contributions to candidates. Unions and corporations responded by forming political action committees (PACs), which aggregated voluntary contributions by individual members or employees.
FECA established limits on candidate spending; on the contributions of individuals and PACs to candidates, parties, or political committees; and on the amount of money candidates could spend on their own campaigns. As amended in 1974, FECA also created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to enforce and clarify campaign-finance laws.
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that restrictions on candidate spending and candidate self-financing violated the First Amendment’s guarantee of freedom of speech. The court allowed the limits on spending in presidential campaigns to stand, because such limits were contingent on receipt of public funds. And the court upheld the limits on contributions from individuals or PACs; thus, from the passage of FECA in 1971 until 2002, individuals and groups were limited to contributing no more than $1,000 to a candidate, up to a total of $25,000, and PACs were limited to contributing no more than $5,000 to a candidate.
Many election observers contended that FECA abetted the development of PACs and increased the reliance of congressional candidates on PACs. FECA was also said, however, to have reduced the reliance of candidates on individual donors or organizations. At the presidential level, FECA also restrained spending: all major party nominees abided by FECA’s spending limits in their primary campaigns from 1976 through 1996, and public funding of general election campaigns ensured that candidates could not outspend each other.
During the 1990s, two major developments took place that tended to undermine FECA’s restrictions. First, although corporations and labour unions could not make direct contributions to candidates, FECA did not prohibit them from contributing to political parties as long as such money was used for “party-building” activities. During the 1990s, political parties began to solicit such “soft money” donations from corporations, labour unions, and wealthy individuals. Because those funds were not distributed by the parties to candidates or used to advocate the election or defeat of a candidate, they were not subject to contribution limits. Second, in the 1990s several ostensibly independent advocacy organizations evaded FECA’s limits on spending money in a coordinated fashion with a campaign by funding television advertising on behalf of particular candidates that simply omitted certain “magic words”—such as “support” and “oppose.”
The BCRA of 2002 was a response to both developments. The two major components of the law were a ban on soft-money contributions to the national parties and severe restrictions on so-called “electioneering communications” (political advertising) by advocacy groups. The latter provisions prohibited organizations that received corporate or labour funding from broadcasting advertisements that referred to a particular candidate within 30 days of the relevant primary election or within 60 days of the general election. The BCRA also doubled individual contribution limits and indexed them to inflation. All major provisions of the law were upheld by the Supreme Court in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003).
In Citizens United, however, the court partly overturned McConnell by invalidating the BCRA’s restrictions on political advertising as an unconstitutional infringement of the free-speech rights of corporations and unions. Four years later, in McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014), the court partly overturned Buckley by striking down FECA’s aggregate limits on monetary contributions by individuals to multiple federal candidates, party committees, and noncandidate PACs.