vanadium processing
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- materials processing
- vanadium
vanadium processing, preparation of the metal for use in various products.
Vanadium (V) is a grayish silver metal whose crystal structure is a body-centred cubic (bcc) lattice, with a melting point of 1,926° C (3,499° F). The metal is used principally as an alloying addition to high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels and, to a lesser extent, in tool steels and iron and steel castings. It is also an important strengthener for titanium alloys. Vanadium alloys are promising candidates for applications in nuclear reactors. The metal is recognized as an industrial hazard, however, as breathing of particulate material with a high vanadium content has been observed to cause an intense, dry cough accompanied by irritation of the nose, eyes, and throat.
History
The discovery of vanadium was first claimed in 1801 by a Spanish mineralogist, Andrés Manuel del Río, who gave it the name erythronium, after the red colour of one of its chemical compounds (Greek erythros, “red”). In 1830 a Swedish chemist, Nils Gabriel Sefström, rediscovered the element and named it vanadium, after Vanadis, the Scandinavian goddess of beauty, because of the beautiful colours of its compounds in solution. The English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe first isolated the metal by hydrogen reduction of vanadium dichloride in 1867, and the American chemists John Wesley Marden and Malcolm N. Rich obtained vanadium of 99.7 percent purity by a calcium reduction process in 1925.
Since the early 1900s, vanadium has been used as an alloying element for steels and iron. In 1905 Antenor Riza Patron discovered a large asphaltite deposit containing rich vanadium ores in Mina Ragra, Peru. Two years later, the American Vanadium Company produced ferrovanadium on a commercial scale for the first time. After titanium became an aerospace construction material in the 1950s, vanadium saw wide use in titanium alloys.
Ores
The important vanadium minerals are patronite (VS4), carnotite [K2(UO2)2(VO4)2], and vanadinite, [Pb5(VO4)3Cl]. Ore deposits mined solely for vanadium are rare because much of the vanadium in igneous rocks occurs in the relatively insoluble trivalent state, substituting for ferric iron in ferromagnesium silicates, magnetite (an iron ore), ilmenite (a titanium ore), and chromite.
The world’s largest mines of vanadium are from titaniferous magnetite reserves in such regions as the Bushveld of South Africa, the Kachkanar Massif of the Ural Mountains, and China’s Szechwan province. Carnotite ores in the sandstones of the Colorado Plateau have been mined for vanadium and uranium. Other sources of vanadium include ash from the combustion of fossil fuel, slag from phosphate ore, the aluminum ore bauxite, and spent catalysts.
Mining
Because vanadium is essentially the by-product of ores that are mined for other minerals, they are mined by methods peculiar to those ores.
Extraction and refining
Vanadium pentoxide
Titaniferous magnetite ore is partially reduced with coal in rotary kilns and then melted in a furnace. This produces a slag containing most of the titanium and a pig iron containing most of the vanadium. After removing the slag, the molten pig iron is blown with oxygen to form a new slag containing 12–24 percent vanadium pentoxide (V2O5), which is used in the further processing of the metal.
Vanadium is extracted from carnotite as a coproduct with uranium by leaching the ore concentrate for 24 hours with hot sulfuric acid and an oxidant such as sodium chlorate. After removal of solids, the leachate is fed into a solvent extraction circuit where the uranium is extracted in an organic solvent consisting of 2.5-percent-amine–2.5-percent-isodecanol–95-percent-kerosene. Vanadium remains in the raffinate, which is fed into a second solvent extraction circuit. There vanadium in turn is extracted in the organic phase, stripped with a 10 percent soda ash solution, and precipitated with ammonium sulfate. The ammonium metavanadate precipitate is filtered, dried, and calcined to V2O5.
Most other vanadium-bearing ores or slags are crushed, ground, screened, and mixed with a sodium salt such as sodium chloride or sodium carbonate. This charge is then roasted at about 850° C (1,550° F) to convert the oxides to sodium metavanadate, which can be leached in hot water. With the acidulation of the leachate with sulfuric acid, the vanadium is precipitated as sodium hexavanadate. This compound, known as red cake, can be fused at 700° C (1,300° F) to yield technical-grade vanadium pentoxide (at least 86 percent V2O5, or it can be further purified by dissolving it in an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate. In the latter case, the iron, aluminum, and silicon impurities in the red cake precipitate from solution upon adjustment of the acidity. The vanadium is precipitated as ammonium metavanadate by adding ammonium chloride. After filtration, the precipitate is calcined to produce V2O5 of a purity greater than 99.8 percent.
Ferrovanadium
The production of ferrovanadium, containing 35–80 percent vanadium, is carried out in an electric-arc furnace. Scrap iron is first melted, and a mixture of V2O5, aluminum, and a flux such as calcium fluoride or calcium oxide is added. In the ensuing reaction, the aluminum metal is converted to alumina, forming a slag, and the V2O5 is reduced to vanadium metal, which is dissolved in the molten iron. Since this oxidation-reduction reaction is exothermic, the heat supply need only develop the kindling temperature of 950° C (1,750° F). After kindling, the electrodes are withdrawn until the reaction is completed; they are then reinserted into the molten slag and the furnace reheated to improve settling.
The aluminothermic process can also be carried out in a refractory-lined steel pot or water-cooled copper crucible. A charge of V2O5, iron oxide, and aluminum is ignited with a barium-peroxide fuse or a magnesium ribbon.
Vanadium metal
In the production of pure metal, V2O5 is reduced metallothermically by calcium or aluminum. In the calcium reduction, the exothermic reaction is carried out in a sealed vessel using calcium chloride as a flux. The vanadium metal is recovered in the form of droplets or beads. (A massive regulus can be obtained by using iodine as both a flux and a thermal booster.) The calcium process requires a rather large amount of reductant and gives low metal yields—in the range of 75–80 percent. In the aluminothermic process, V205, mixed with aluminum powder, is heated in an electric furnace or ignited in a refractory-lined vessel using barium peroxide as the booster. The vanadium regulus thus obtained may be further purified by electron-beam melting.
To prepare aluminum-vanadium master alloys for the titanium industry, the aluminothermic method is also used. In this case, an amount of aluminum greater than that required for reduction is added to the charge.