tin processing

Written by B.T.K. Barry

Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Related Topics:: tin; materials processing

tin processing, preparation of the ore for use in various products.

Tin (Sn) is a relatively soft and ductile metal with a silvery white colour. It has a density of 7.29 grams per cubic centimetre, a low melting point of 231.88 °C (449.38 °F), and a high boiling point of 2,625 °C (4,757 °F). Tin is allotropic; that is, it takes on more than one form. The normal form is white tin, or beta tin, which has a body-centred tetragonal crystal structure. The second allotrope, gray or alpha tin, has a face-centred cubic structure. Gray tin is theoretically stable below 13 °C (55 °F), but in practice it is readily formed only at about −40 °C (−40 °F). This transformation is difficult to initiate and is severely retarded by the presence of alloying elements or trace impurities. Nonetheless, it has given rise to the extremely rare laboratory curiosity known as tin pest.

Tin finds industrial application both as a metal and in chemical compounds. As a metal it is used in a very wide variety of industrial applications—but almost always in combination with other elements as an alloy or coating, since its intrinsic softness precludes its use as a structural material. Although tin is usually a minor constituent in alloys, it is an essential one on account of the way in which its special properties confer improvements to the matrix metal.

The major commercial applications of tin are in tinplate, solder alloys, bearing metals, tin and alloy coatings (both plated and hot-coated), pewter, bronzes, and fusible alloys. In its chemical reactions, tin exists in two valence states (II and IV) and is amphoteric (able to react as both an acid and a base). In addition, it can link directly with carbon to form organometallic compounds. These properties have given rise to many important uses for tin chemicals—for example, in electroplating, agricultural and pharmaceutical products, and plastics and ceramics.

History

There is evidence from both archaeology and literature that tin was one of the earliest metals to be known and used. Its earliest application was as an alloy with copper to form bronze, which was fashioned into tools and weapons. Bronze articles (typically containing about 10 percent tin) have been found in the Middle East dating from about 3500 bce and in Egypt from 3000 bce. Other ancient civilizations also used bronze articles; for example, Chinese bronzes have been dated to about 2250 bce.

Tin was obviously an important item of trade from early times, as it is mentioned in at least three books of the Bible (Numbers, Isaiah, and Ezekiel) dating from as long ago as 700 bce.

Pewter is a tin alloy that also has a long history. Probably the oldest known piece, dating from about 1500 bce, was found in Egypt, but it was the Roman civilization that developed pewter ware for household vessels and ornamental use. These applications have continued to the present day, although the alloy compositions have changed markedly.

The use of tin as a coating for other metals also has ancient historical roots, with tinned copper vessels for cooking tracing back to Roman times. Most important was the development of tinning iron sheet in order to form tinplate. This began in central Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries and gradually spread throughout the continent. The original uses of tinplate were for household articles, including lanterns, plates, and drinking vessels; however, with the introduction of food canning in 1812, packaging became the major use of tinplate.

An important date from more recent history is 1839, when the American metalsmith Isaac Babbitt first used tin-based alloys in bearings for machinery. Babbitt metal considerably aided the development of the industrial society. Further developments in tin alloys, coatings, and chemicals have contributed to advances in transport, telecommunication, aerospace, packaging, agriculture, and environmental protection.

Ores

The principal tin mineral is cassiterite, or tinstone (SnO₂), a naturally occurring oxide of tin containing about 78.8 percent tin. Of less importance are two complex sulfide minerals, stannite (Cu₂FeSnS₄), a copper-iron-tin sulfide, and cylindrite (PbSn₄FeSb₂S₁₄), a lead-tin-iron-antimony sulfide. These two minerals occur chiefly in lode deposits in Bolivia, often in association with other metals such as silver.

Unlike most base metals, economically viable deposits of cassiterite are restricted to a few geographic areas. The most important of these is in Southeast Asia and includes the tin-mining areas of China—which accounted for nearly half of all tin production in the early 21st century. Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil, Australia, Nigeria, and Congo (Kinshasa) are other major tin contributors. Minor producers are Peru, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe. There is no significant tin deposit in the United States and only relatively small production in Canada.

About 80 percent of the world’s tin comes from alluvial or secondary deposits. Most of these occur on land, but in certain areas, notably in Indonesia and Thailand, the deposits are mined offshore by dredging the seabed.

Even in the richest tin fields, the concentration of tin is very low. This means that up to seven or eight tons of ore may have to be mined in order to recover one kilogram of cassiterite.