Fabrication and assembly
Before welding came into wide-scale use in the 1930s, every ship was constructed on the building berth. The keel was laid, floors laid in place, frames or ribs erected, beams hung from the frames, and this skeleton, framed structure was held together by long pieces of wood called ribbands. Plating was then added and all the parts of the structure were rivetted together. In other words, the ship was built from the keel upward.
The modern method is to construct large parts of the hull, for example, the complete bow and stern. Each of these parts is built up from subassemblies or component parts, which are then welded together to form the complete bow or stern. These sections of the ship are manufactured under cover in large sheds, generally at some distance from the building berth, before being transported to the berth and there fitted into place and welded to the adjacent section. The advantages of this procedure are that work can proceed under cover, unhampered by bad weather, and the units or component parts can be built up in sequences to suit the welding operations—not always possible at the building berth itself.
Launching, outfitting, and trials
Launching
Apart from certain small craft built on inland waterways, which are launched sideways, the great majority of ships are launched stern first from the building berth. Standing structures called ways, constructed of concrete and wooden blocks, spaced about one-third of the vessel’s beam apart, support the ship under construction. The slope of the standing ways—which are often cambered (slightly curved upward toward the middle or slightly curved downward toward the ends) in the fore and aft direction—ranges from one-half to three-quarters of an inch per foot of length (from 42 to 62 millimetres per metre of length); ways extend from a position near the bow to past the stern and for a certain distance into the water. Over these standing ways is built the launching cradle, which consists of sliding ways on which are built poppets, or supporting structures, of timber to provide support for the hull. Between standing ways and launching ways is a layer of lubricant.
During construction the ship is supported by at least one line of blocks under the keel, with side supports and shores as necessary. As the vessel nears completion, the standing ways are built under it, the sliding ways are superimposed, and the cradle is built up. The weight of the vessel is transferred gradually to the standing ways. The full weight must not be supported by the ways for too long because the thickness of lubricant would be reduced by squeezing and its properties would be adversely affected. It is common to fit launching triggers which, when released at the moment of launching, permit the sliding ways to move over the standing ways.
As a vessel moves down the ways, the forces operating are: its weight acting down through the centre of gravity, the upward support from the standing ways, and the buoyancy of the water. As it travels further, the buoyancy increases and the upthrust of the ways decreases, with the weight remaining constant. As the centre of gravity passes the after end of the standing ways, the moment of the weight about the end of the ways tends to tip the ship stern first. At this position and for some time later, it is essential that the moment of buoyancy be greater than the moment of weight about the after end of the ways, thus giving a moment to keep the forward end of the sliding ways on the standing ways; otherwise there would be concentration of weight at the end of the ways, causing excessive local pressure. Calculations are made to determine the most important factors in launching, namely, the moment at which the stern lifts, the difference between weight and buoyancy when the stern lifts, the existence of a moment against tipping, and the equality of weight and buoyancy before the vessel reaches the after end of the ways to ensure that the cradle will not drop off the end of the standing ways.
The launching of a vessel into a restricted waterway requires the application of a retarding force. Usually piles of chains are laid alongside the sides of the ship to act as drags, and these are secured to chain plates by wire cables, fixed temporarily to the hull. As the vessel slides down the launching ways, the drags come serially into operation after, or sometimes before, the bow has cleared the after end of the ways. Launching can be a hazardous operation. If the lubricant is ineffective, the vessel will not move. If the stern does not lift as the vessel slides down the ways, the ship may tip about the way ends. The bow may sustain damage when it drops into the water at the end of the ways and may damage the slipway when the stern lifts. Excessive loads on the poppets may cause their collapse.
Outfitting
After launching, the ship is berthed in a fitting-out basin for completion. The main machinery, together with auxiliaries, piping systems, deck gear, lifeboats, accommodation equipment, plumbing systems, and rigging are installed on board, along with whatever insulation and deck coverings are necessary. Fitting out may be a relatively minor undertaking, as with a tanker or a bulk carrier, but in the case of a passenger vessel, the work will be extensive. Although fitting-out operations are diverse and complex, as with hull construction there are four main divisions: (1) collection and grouping of the specified components, (2) installation of components according to schedule, (3) connection of components to appropriate piping and/or wiring systems, and (4) testing of completed systems.
The tendency in planning has been to divide the ship into sections, listing the quantities of components required and times of delivery. Drawings necessary for each section are prepared and these specify the quantities of components required. A master schedule is compiled, specifying the sequences and target dates for completion and testing of each component system. This schedule is used to marshal and synchronize fitting work in the different sections and compartments.