The principles of vacuum distillation resemble those of fractional distillation (commonly called atmospheric distillation to distinguish it from the vacuum method), except that larger-diameter columns are used to maintain comparable vapour velocities at reduced operating pressures. A vacuum of 50 to 100 mm of mercury absolute is produced by a vacuum pump or steam ejector.

The primary advantage of vacuum distillation is that it allows for distilling heavier materials at lower temperatures than those that would be required at atmospheric pressure, thus avoiding thermal cracking of the components. Firing conditions in the furnace are adjusted so that oil temperatures usually do not exceed 425 °C (800 °F). The residue remaining after vacuum distillation, called bitumen, may be further blended to produce road asphalt or residual fuel oil, or it may be used as a feedstock for thermal cracking or coking units. Vacuum distillation units are essential parts of the many processing schemes designed to produce lubricants.

Superfractionation

An extension of the distillation process, superfractionation employs smaller-diameter columns with a much larger number of trays (100 or more) and reflux ratios exceeding 5:1. With such equipment it is possible to isolate a very narrow range of components or even pure compounds. Common applications involve the separation of high-purity solvents such as isoparaffins or of individual aromatic compounds for use as petrochemicals.

Absorption

Absorption processes are employed to recover valuable light components such as propane/propylene and butane/butylene from the vapours that leave the top of crude-oil or process-unit fractionating columns within the refinery. These volatile gases are bubbled through an absorption fluid, such as kerosene or heavy naphtha, in equipment resembling a fractionating column. The light products dissolve in the oil while the dry gases—such as hydrogen, methane, ethane, and ethylene—pass through undissolved. Absorption is more effective under pressures of about 7 to 10 bars (0.7 to 1 megapascal [MPa]), or 100 to 150 psi, than it is at atmospheric pressure.

The enriched absorption fluid is heated and passed into a stripping column, where the light product vapours pass upward and are condensed for recovery as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The unvaporized absorption fluid passes from the base of the stripping column and is reused in the absorption tower.

Solvent extraction

Solvent extraction processes are employed primarily for the removal of constituents that would have an adverse effect on the performance of the product in use. An important application is the removal of heavy aromatic compounds from lubricating oils. Removal improves the viscosity-temperature relationship of the product, extending the temperature range over which satisfactory lubrication is obtained. The usual solvents for extraction of lubricating oil are phenol and furfural.

Adsorption

Certain highly porous solid materials have the ability to select and adsorb specific types of molecules, thus separating them from other materials. Silica gel is used in this way to separate aromatics from other hydrocarbons, and activated charcoal is used to remove liquid components from gases. Adsorption is thus somewhat analogous to the process of absorption with an oil, although the principles are different. Layers of adsorbed material only a few molecules thick are formed on the extensive interior surface of the adsorbent; the interior surface may amount to several hectares per kilogram of material.

Molecular sieves are a special form of adsorbent. Such sieves are produced by the dehydration of naturally occurring or synthetic zeolites (crystalline alkali-metal aluminosilicates). The dehydration leaves intercrystalline cavities that have pore openings of definite size, depending on the alkali metal of the zeolite. Under adsorptive conditions, normal paraffin molecules can enter the crystalline lattice and be selectively retained, whereas all other molecules are excluded. This principle is used commercially for the removal of normal paraffins from gasoline fuels, thus improving their combustion properties. The use of molecular sieves is also extensive in the manufacture of high-purity solvents.

Crystallization

The crystallization of wax from lubricating oil fractions is essential to make oils suitable for use. A solvent (often a mixture of benzene and methyl ethyl ketone) is first added to the oil, and the solution is chilled to about −20 °C (−5 °F). The function of the benzene is to keep the oil in solution and maintain its fluidity at low temperatures, whereas the methyl ethyl ketone acts as a wax precipitant. Rotary filters deposit the wax crystals on a specially woven cloth stretched over a perforated cylindrical drum. A vacuum is maintained within the drum to draw the oil through the perforations. The wax crystals are removed from the cloth by metal scrapers, after washing with solvent to remove traces of oil. The solvents are later distilled from the oil and reused.