- Key People:
- Gustavus Swift
- Upton Sinclair
- Related Topics:
- carcass
- exsanguination
- stunning
- cold shortening
- deboning
The physical changes associated with cooking meat are caused by the effects of heat on connective tissue and muscle proteins.
Colour changes
In beef, changes in cooking temperatures ranging from 54 °C or 130 °F (very rare) to 82 °C or 180 °F (very well done) correspond to changes in colour from deep red or purple to pale gray. These colour changes are a result of the denaturation of the myoglobin in meat. Denaturation is the physical unfolding of proteins in response to such influences as extreme heat. The denaturation of myoglobin makes the protein unable to bind oxygen, causing the colour to change from the bright cherry red of oxymyoglobin to the brown of denatured myoglobin (equivalent to metmyoglobin).
Structural changes
The colour changes during cooking correspond to structural changes taking place in the meat. These structural changes are due to the effects of heat on collagen (connective tissue protein) and actin and myosin (myofibrillar proteins). In the temperature range between 50 and 71 °C (122 to 160 °F) connective tissue in the meat begins to shrink. Further heating to temperatures above 71 °C causes the complete denaturation of collagen into a gelatin-like consistency. Therefore, tough meats with relatively high amounts of connective tissues can be slowly cooked under moist conditions to internal temperatures above 71 °C and made tender by gelatinization of the collagen within the meat, while at the same time maintaining juiciness.
The myofibrillar proteins also experience major changes during cooking. In the range of 40 to 50 °C (104 to 122 °F) actin and myosin begin to lose solubility as heat denaturation begins. At temperatures of 66° to 77 °C (150 to 170 °F) the myofibrillar proteins begin to shorten and toughen. Beyond 77 °C (170 °F) proteins begin to lose structural integrity (i.e., they are completely denatured) and tenderness begins to improve.
The effects of heat on both connective tissue and myofibrillar proteins must be balanced in order to achieve maximum tenderness during cooking. Meats with low amounts of connective tissue are most tender when served closer to medium rare or rare so that muscle proteins are not hardened. Conversely, meats with heavy amounts of connective tissue require slow cooking closer to well done in order to achieve collagen gelatinization.
Meat microbiology, safety, and storage
When the conversion of muscle to meat begins, biological degradation of meat also commences. In the absence of a living immune system, microorganisms are unchecked in their ability to grow and reproduce on meat surfaces.
Food-borne microorganisms
Generally, food-borne microorganisms can be classified as either food-spoilage or food-poisoning, with each presenting unique characteristics and challenges to meat product safety and quality.
Food-spoilage microorganisms
These organisms are responsible for detrimental quality changes in meat. The changes include discoloration, unpleasant odours, and physical alterations. The principal spoilage organisms are molds and bacteria.
Molds usually appear dry and fuzzy and are white or green in colour. They can impart a musty flavour to meat. Common molds in meat include the genera Cladosporium, Mucor, and Alternaria. Slime molds produce a soft, creamy material on the surface of meat.
Common spoilage bacteria include Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Moraxella. Under anaerobic conditions, such as in canned meats, spoilage can include souring, putrefaction, and gas production. This is a result of anaerobic decomposition of proteins by the bacteria.
Food-poisoning microorganisms
Food-poisoning microorganisms can cause health problems by either intoxication or infection. Intoxication occurs when food-poisoning microorganisms produce a toxin that triggers sickness when ingested. Several different kinds of toxins are produced by the various microorganisms. These toxins usually affect the cells lining the intestinal wall, causing vomiting and diarrhea. Microorganisms capable of causing food-poisoning intoxication include Clostridium perfringens (found in temperature-abused cooked meats—i.e., meats that have not been stored, cooked, or reheated at the appropriate temperatures), Staphylococcus aureus (found in cured meats), and Clostridium botulinum (found in canned meats).
Infection occurs when an organism is ingested by the host, then grows inside the host and causes acute sickness and, in extreme cases, death. Common infectious bacteria capable of causing food poisoning in undercooked or contaminated meats are Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Listeria monocytogenes.
Prevention of microbial contamination
The initial microorganism load can be the most significant factor affecting the contamination of meat. If meat is never exposed to pathogenic microorganisms (those capable of causing human sickness), then there is no opportunity for food-borne illnesses to occur.
Several meat-processing plants have begun to utilize a program called the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system to reduce pathogenic contamination. This program identifies the steps in the conversion of livestock to human food where the product is at risk of contamination by microorganisms. Once identified, these points, known as critical control points, are examined to determine how to eliminate the risk of microbial contamination.