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While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies.
Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.
Sam Abboud—FPGAn unclear line of succession plagued the Umayyad dynasty throughout its reign, and civil unrest and tribal warfare often surrounded the naming of new caliphs. A clear decline began with the disastrous defeat of the Syrian army by the Byzantine emperor Leo III in 717. Soon afterward, caliph ʿUmar II (reigned 717–20) initiated fiscal reforms as a response to complaints from the increasingly discontented mawālī (non-Arab Muslims). This well-intended attempt to place all Muslims on the same footing led to financial crisis. Meanwhile, feuds between southern (Kalb) and northern (Qays) Arab tribes reduced military power and erupted into major revolts in 745. The mawālī became involved with the Hāshimiyyah, a religio-political faction that denied the legitimacy of Umayyad rule. In 749 the Hāshimiyyah, aided by the western provinces, proclaimed as caliph Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Saffāḥ of the ʿAbbasid family.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The ʿAbbasids were descended from an uncle of Muhammad. Seeing the weaknesses of the Umayyads, they declared a revolt in 747. With the help of a coalition of Persians, Iraqis, and Shīʿites, they put an end to the Umayyad dynasty with a victory against them at the Battle of the Great Zab River in 750. The last Umayyad caliph, Marwān II, was killed while fleeing the forces of Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Saffāḥ.
ʿAbd al-Malik was the fifth caliph (685–705 ce) of the Umayyad Arab dynasty centred in Damascus. He reorganized and strengthened governmental administration and, throughout the empire, adopted Arabic as the language of administration. ʿAbd al-Malik spent the first half of his life with his father,
