Augustus’s Achievements

After Julius Caesar’s death, a struggle for power ensued. Octavian reached an agreement with his chief rivals, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Together they formed the Second Triumvirate and governed with full power. In 42 bc they defeated an army in Philippi led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, two of Caesar’s assassins. The triumvirate divided up Rome’s territories, Antony controlling the East, Lepidus controlling Africa, and Octavian controlling the West and Italy. Between 38 and 36 bc Octavian and Lepidus battled Sextus Pompeius (Pompey the Great’s son) for control of Rome. Antony lent support from Egypt, and the triumvirate defeated Pompeius. Later Lepidus was stripped of his power, and the triumvirate came to an end.

Octavian began to shift the balance of power with his increasingly powerful naval forces, commanded by his former schoolmate Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Octavian’s rivalry with Antony for rule of the Roman world became apparent as he slowly increased support for himself. To prove his military strength, Octavian fought three successive campaigns in Illyricum and Dalmatia (parts of modern Slovenia and Croatia) in order to protect the northeastern approaches of Italy. Antony, who was married to Octavian’s sister, Octavia, had begun a romantic and political alliance with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. Antony divorced Octavia. Octavian subsequently declared war on Cleopatra. With Agrippa as admiral, Octavian’s forces decisively defeated Antony’s fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 bc. Antony and Cleopatra, who were both present at the battle, escaped to Alexandria. The next year Octavian defeated Antony again, in Egypt. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was annexed to Rome, and Octavian returned to Rome in triumph. Octavian was now the sole ruler of Rome. He gained supreme power for life but was careful not to repeat the same mistake Caesar had made by overtly proclaiming himself “dictator in perpetuity.” Instead, he concealed his autocracy beneath provisions that gave the appearance of a republican government.

An organizational genius, Augustus achieved administrative accomplishments that exceeded his military successes. He eased Roman citizens’ fears of another dictatorship by maintaining institutions such as the Senate and passing laws that appeared to be in line with the ideas of the Roman Republic. He was careful never to call himself emperor, but rather he referred to himself as Rome’s princeps, or “first citizen.” He empowered senators he added from all around Italy to name independent governors to Roman provinces. Although he kept the Senate, he controlled the Senate’s decisions and exercised his veto power.

A major source of Augustus’s power was his army. The money he gained from Cleopatra allowed him to pay his soldiers and secure their loyalty. He also cut the size of the army roughly in half and gave the veterans grants of land. They settled in various colonies, which helped spread Roman culture to farawayprovinces and consolidate the empire. He instituted a system of taxation that paid for resources and improvements.

Under Augustus’s reign the Roman empire entered an era known as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace—a period of 200 years of peace and prosperity throughout the empire. After decades of conflict Rome now experienced order and stability. Territories that were once captured or destroyed by Roman troops now were peaceful provinces with conquered subjects as Roman citizens. Taxes were paid, trade boomed, and roads were built. Augustus worked to improve and beautify the city of Rome. Many great works of architecture were built or completed, such as the Theatre of Marcellus. He also founded cities in provinces, promoted learning, and encouraged the arts. In Latin literature the great writers Virgil, Horace, Livy, and Ovid flourished in what has been called the Augustan Age—a term since used to describe periods of great literary achievement in modern nations. Referred to as “father of the country,” Augustus left a secure, stable, and prosperous empire to his son Tiberius.