Alexander the Great’s Achievements

Alexander was born in 356 bce in Pella, Macedonia, the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias. In his early teens he became a pupil of Aristotle, who sparked his interest in philosophy and science. However, it was in military affairs that he excelled. In a war against the allied Greek states, 18-year-old Alexander led a cavalry charge that helped Philip win the conflict. In 336 Philip was assassinated. Alexander was acclaimed by the army and succeeded to the throne without opposition. He inherited a highly trained, mobile military force and his father’s dream of conquering the Persian empire.

As king, Alexander immediately moved to assert his authority over the Greek states and to prepare for an invasion of Persia. In quick succession, Alexander defeated the forces of Thessaly, the Triballi in Thrace, a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia, and the city-state of Thebes, which he razed to the ground. Cowed, the Greeks acknowledged his authority, and Macedonian garrisons were left in a number of Greek states.

Alexander knew he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip. Alexander’s invasion of Persia came at an opportune time. Although the Persian army outnumbered his own, it was less disciplined and poorly led. The Persian king, Darius III, was already losing control over parts of his empire. Alexander commanded a large battle-hardened force of cavalry, foot soldiers, archers, and javelin throwers. He also had a core of skilled, trusted generals including Ptolemy, Cassander, Antigonus, and Seleucus. One of his greatest assets was his own ability to rapidly respond to changing battlefield conditions. With these advantages, the Macedonian king never lost a major battle in 11 years of campaigning. In 334–333 Alexander routed Darius’s forces at the Granicus River and at Issus, forcing Darius to flee. In 332 Alexander conquered Syria, Phoenicia, Tyre, and Egypt, where he founded the historic city of Alexandria. He later defeated Darius for a final time at the battle of Gaugamela. After Darius was killed in 330, Alexander declared himself King of Asia. He spent the next two years consolidating his control over the Persian empire and its vast wealth. During his campaign, Alexander revealed other abilities besides military prowess. As an administrator, he incorporated native rulers into his government, set up democracies in many states, and founded several more cities. He included engineers, architects, scientists, and historians among his entourage. He spread Hellenistic culture and monetary systems across western and Central Asia.

Alexander also developed a belief in his own divine heritage, which caused problems with his troops. The Macedonians rejected this idea. However, Alexander continued to insist on his divinity, even casting a godlike image of himself on coins.

In the summer of 327 Alexander invaded India with a newly reinforced army. His ultimate ambition was to reach the Indian Ocean. He impressed the local Indian rulers by storming the nearly impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, a few miles west of the Indus River. On June 1, 326, Alexander fought his last great battle on the banks of the Hydaspes River. He defeated a far larger army led by King Porus, who later became a strong ally. While at the Hyphasis River, Alexander’s troops, exhausted after years of campaigning, mutinied and insisted on returning home. Alexander reluctantly led the army back across India, quelling rebellions and purging corrupt governors along the way. By 324 he arrived in Susa, Persia. He ultimately sent many of his veterans home with riches and honors.

In 323 Alexander traveled to Babylon to plan an exploration of Arabia but was suddenly taken ill. On June 13 he died. His empire split into separate kingdoms. The life of Alexander has fascinated historians and the general public for more than 2,000 years. His reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. Alexander’s expeditions brought advances in geography and natural sciences and helped shift the major centers of civilization eastward. His greatest contribution was spreading Hellenistic culture from Gibraltar to the Punjab. Greek language and coinage served as common links across these vast trading and cultural networks. In a real sense, Alexander’s achievements helped pave the way for the rise of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity, and centuries of Byzantine rule.