Northern Exposure: …exploitative businessman; Ruth-Anne Miller (Peg Phillips), proprietor of the general store with a Native American employee, Ed Chigliak (Darren E. Burrows), an aspiring cinematographer and shaman; bush pilot Maggie O’Connell (Janine Turner), Fleischman’s hot-cold love interest; radio disc jockey Chris Stevens (John Corbett), whose on-air monologues were both folksy…

Maersk Alabama hijacking: …crew eventually repelled the attackers, Capt. Richard Phillips was taken hostage aboard one of the Maersk Alabama’s lifeboats. The resulting standoff with the U.S. Navy ended on April 12 after Navy SEAL snipers killed three of the captors; a fourth had already surrendered.

cholera: Development of treatments: …not occur until 1958, when Robert A. Phillips, a U.S. Navy physician, identified a solution that proved to be even more effective. Further refinements of Phillips’s solution and the methods of administering treatment occurred in Bangkok (Thailand), Taiwan, Manila, and Dhaka. By the mid-1960s, mortality rates in those areas were…

T Bone Burnett: …album by Christian pop artist Leslie Phillips, proved significant personally. Burnett and Phillips—who recorded as Sam on later albums—became involved romantically, and the two were married in 1989 (they divorced in 2004).

encyclopaedia: The reader’s needs: …issued by a remarkable publisher, Sir Richard Phillips, who realized the great demand for pocket-size compendia and drove a thriving trade in issuing a number of these; he is thought to have written large sections of these himself.

Stephen Phillips was an English actor and poet who was briefly successful as a playwright. Phillips was educated at Trinity College School, Stratford-upon-Avon, and at King’s School, Peterborough. In 1885 he joined an acting company founded by Frank Benson, his cousin. Phillips’s first collection

Karl Rove: Senate in 1984, and Tom Phillips, who in 1988 became the first Republican ever elected to the Texas Supreme Court.

Apostolic Overcoming Holy Church of God: Phillips in Mobile, Ala. The name was changed in 1927. The founder left the Methodist Episcopal Church, which he served as a minister, after becoming concerned about the doctrine of holiness and the process of sanctification.

Wendell Phillips was an abolitionist crusader whose oratorical eloquence helped fire the antislavery cause during the period leading up to the American Civil War. After opening a law office in Boston, Phillips, a wealthy Harvard Law School graduate, sacrificed social status and a prospective

geochronology: Completion of the Phanerozoic time scale: Conybeare and William Phillips, in their synthesis of the geology of England and Wales in 1822. Conybeare and Phillips coined the term Carboniferous (or coal-bearing) to apply to the succession of rocks from north-central England that contained the Coal Measures. The unit also included several underlying rock…

William D. Phillips is an American physicist whose experiments using laser light to cool and trap atoms earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997. He shared the award with Steven Chu and Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, who also developed methods of laser cooling and atom trapping. Phillips received

screwdriver: …common special screw is the Phillips head (Phillips Screw) as shown in the Figure.

Phillipsia, genus of trilobites (an extinct group of aquatic arthropods) uncommonly found as fossils in Carboniferous and Permian rocks (about 251 million to 359 million years old) in Europe, North America, and the Far East. One of the last known trilobite genera, Phillipsia is characterized by a

phillipsite, hydrated calcium, sodium, and potassium aluminosilicate mineral in the zeolite family [(K,Na,Ca)1-2(Si,Al)8O16·6H2O]. It typically is found as brittle white crystals filling cavities and fissures in basalt and in phonolite lava, occurring near Rome; on Sicily; in Victoria, Australia;

Elliot Page is a Canadian actor best known for his performances in the comedy-drama film Juno (2007) and the Netflix television series The Umbrella Academy (2019– ). Page was assigned female at birth and named Ellen by his parents, graphic designer Dennis Page and elementary school teacher Martha

Eden Phillpotts was a British novelist, poet, and dramatist especially noted for novels evoking their Devon setting in a manner reminiscent of the style of Thomas Hardy. Phillpotts was educated at Plymouth and for 10 years was a clerk in an insurance office. He then studied for the stage and later

Henry Phillpotts was a Church of England bishop of Exeter (from 1830), who represented the conservative High Church wing of the Oxford Movement and emphasized liturgical forms of worship, episcopal government, monastic life, and early Christian doctrine as normative of orthodoxy. His unsuccessful

cheesesteak, a sandwich made with sliced or chopped steak and melted cheese on a long sandwich roll. While its origins are subject to debate, brothers Pat and Harry Olivieri are often credited with coming up with the idea in South Philadelphia in the 1930s. The sandwich soon gained popularity, and

mock privet, any shrub or small tree of the genus Phillyrea in the olive family, Oleaceae. The four species of mock privet, native to the Mediterranean area, sometimes are grown as ornamentals for their handsome, glossy, evergreen leaves. P. decora reaches 3 m (10 feet) and has shining leaves and

mock privet: P. decora reaches 3 m (10 feet) and has shining leaves and clusters of small, white flowers. The small, bright red, one-seeded fruits turn purple-black as they mature. P. latifolia reaches 10 m, and P. angustifolia, about 5 m.

Philo Judaeus was a Greek-speaking Jewish philosopher, the most important representative of Hellenistic Judaism. His writings provide the clearest view of this development of Judaism in the Diaspora. As the first to attempt to synthesize revealed faith and philosophic reason, he occupies a unique

Philo Judaeus was a Greek-speaking Jewish philosopher, the most important representative of Hellenistic Judaism. His writings provide the clearest view of this development of Judaism in the Diaspora. As the first to attempt to synthesize revealed faith and philosophic reason, he occupies a unique

Sanchuniathon: …derived from the works of Philo of Byblos (flourished ad 100). Excavations at Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit) in Syria in 1929 revealed Phoenician documents supporting much of Sanchuniathon’s information on Phoenician mythology and religious beliefs. According to Philo, Sanchuniathon derived the sacred lore from inscriptions on the Ammouneis (i.e., images…

Platonism: Greek Platonism from Aristotle through Middle Platonism: its nature and history: …philosophical teaching was effected by Philo of Larissa (died c. 79 bce) and his pupil Antiochus of Ascalon, who was head of the school in 79–78 bce.

history of logic: The Megarians and the Stoics: …century bce) and his pupil Philo of Megara. The Stoics were followers of Zeno of Citium (c. 336–c. 265 bce). By far the most important Stoic logician was Chrysippus (c. 279–206 bce). The influence of Megarian on Stoic logic is indisputable, but many details are uncertain, since all but fragments…

Phoebe Philo is a British fashion designer who developed a loyal following with her modern yet wearable wardrobe essentials. She served as creative director of the French fashion houses Chloé (2001–06) and Céline (2008–17) before launching an eponymous line in 2023. Philo’s British parents were

history of publishing: The revival of the secular book trade: This is evident in Philobiblon, a book finished in 1345 describing the book-collecting activities of Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham. The book relates how the bishop established good relations with stationers and booksellers in England, France, Germany, and Italy by sending advance payments. Evidence from the same century…

St. Gregory of Nazianzus: …friends collaborated in editing the Philocalia, an anthology of theological and devotional selections from the works of Origen.

church year: Christmas: …(the Chronographer of 354, or Philocalian Calendar), which indicates that the festival was observed by the church in Rome by the year 336.

ancient Greek civilization: Historical writings: …contrary, the greatest of them, Philochorus, was put to death in the 3rd century by a Macedonian king for his excessive partiality toward King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt. All these authors were, in different ways, coming to terms with monarchy.

John Bulwer: …Language of the Hand (1644); Philocopus; or, The Deaf and Dumb Man’s Friend (1648); Pathomyotamia; or, A Dissection of the Significative Muscles of the Affections of the Mind (1649); and Anthropometamorphosis; or, The Artificial Changeling (1650).

ancient Greek civilization: Macedonian supremacy in Greece: This was the notorious Peace of Philocrates—notorious because of the attempts by various leading Athenian orator-politicians to saddle each other with responsibility for what was in fact an inevitability.

Philoctetes, Greek legendary hero who played a decisive part in the final stages of the Trojan War. He (or his father, Poeas) had been bequeathed the bow and arrows of the Greek hero Heracles in return for lighting his funeral pyre; Philoctetes thus became a notable archer. En route to Troy he was

Philoctetes, play by Sophocles, first performed in 409 bce. The play opens after the Troy-bound Greeks have cast away the title character on the desert island of Lemnos because of a foul-smelling and incurable ulcer on his foot. In the course of battle, the Greeks discover that they cannot defeat

Philodemus was a Greek poet and Epicurean philosopher who did much to spread Epicureanism to Rome. After studying under the Epicurean Zeno of Sidon at Athens, he moved to Rome c. 75 bc and became the mentor of the Roman aristocrat Lucius Calpurnius Piso, who invited Philodemus to live in his villa

philodendron, (genus Philodendron), approximately 450 species of stout-stemmed climbing herbs of the family Araceae, native to tropical America. Many species begin life as vines and then transform into epiphytes (plants that live upon other plants). Because many young philodendrons are adapted to

philodendron, (genus Philodendron), approximately 450 species of stout-stemmed climbing herbs of the family Araceae, native to tropical America. Many species begin life as vines and then transform into epiphytes (plants that live upon other plants). Because many young philodendrons are adapted to

philodendron: Major species: Of moderate size is the fiddle-leaf, or horsehead, philodendron (P. bipennifolium), with large fiddle-shaped glossy green leaves up to 15–25 cm (6–10 inches) wide and 45 cm (18 inches) long. Larger types include the spade-leaf philodendron (P. domesticum), with triangular leaves up to 60 cm (24 inches) long, and the…

philodendron: Major species: …(24 inches) long, and the tree philodendron (P. bipinnatifidum), with deeply cut leaves up to 1 metre (3 feet) long, both of which are striking plants that require considerable indoor space.

philodendron: Major species: Larger types include the spade-leaf philodendron (P. domesticum), with triangular leaves up to 60 cm (24 inches) long, and the tree philodendron (P. bipinnatifidum), with deeply cut leaves up to 1 metre (3 feet) long, both of which are striking plants that require considerable indoor space.

houseplant: Foliage plants: …deliciosa, or Philodendron pertusum, the Swiss cheese plant, has showy, glossy, perforated leaves slashed to the margins.

philodendron: Major species: Another variety, the velvet-leaf philodendron (P. hederaceum, variety hederaceum) has small bronzy green velvety leaves with reddish undersides. Of moderate size is the fiddle-leaf, or horsehead, philodendron (P. bipennifolium), with large fiddle-shaped glossy green leaves up to 15–25 cm (6–10 inches) wide and 45 cm (18 inches) long.…

philodendron: Major species: …among them is the common heart-leaf philodendron (Philodendron hederaceum, variety oxycardium). Another variety, the velvet-leaf philodendron (P. hederaceum, variety hederaceum) has small bronzy green velvety leaves with reddish undersides. Of moderate size is the fiddle-leaf, or horsehead, philodendron (P. bipennifolium), with large fiddle-shaped glossy green leaves up to 15–25 cm…

woodcock: The female American woodcock (Scolopax, or Philohela, minor) is about 28 cm (11 inches) long, including the bill. Her mate is slightly smaller. The wings are very rounded, and the outermost wing feathers are attenuated to produce vibratory sounds during flight, apparently at will. The male’s aerial…

Philokalia, (Greek: “Love of the Good, the Beautiful”), prose anthology of Greek Christian monastic texts that was part of a movement for spiritual renewal in Eastern monasticism and Orthodox devotional life in general. Compiled by the Greek monk Nikodimos and by Makarios, the bishop of Corinth,

Philolaus was a philosopher of the Pythagorean school, named after the Greek thinker Pythagoras (fl. c. 530 bc). Philolaus was born either at Tarentum or, according to the 3rd-century-ad Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius, at Croton, in southern Italy. When, after the death of Pythagoras, dissension

philological criticism, method of biblical criticism consisting mainly in the study of the biblical languages in their widest scope, so that the vocabulary, grammar, and style of biblical writings can be understood as accurately as possible. It includes the study of writings, both scriptural and

dictionary: Since 1828: The Philological Society, founded in 1842, established an “Unregistered Words Committee,” but, upon hearing two papers by Richard Chenevix Trench in 1857—“On Some Deficiencies in Our English Dictionaries”—the society changed its plan to the making of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Forward steps were…

philology, traditionally, the study of the history of language, including the historical study of literary texts. It is also called comparative philology when the emphasis is on the comparison of the historical states of different languages. The philological tradition is one of painstaking textual

comparative linguistics, study of the relationships or correspondences between two or more languages and the techniques used to discover whether the languages have a common ancestor. Comparative grammar was the most important branch of linguistics in the 19th century in Europe. Also called

ruff, (Philomachus pugnax), in zoology, Old World bird of the sandpiper subfamily Calidritinae (family Scolopacidae, order Charadriiformes) remarkable for its unusual courtship plumage and behaviour. The name ruff applies to the species or may be applied to the male only. In spring the 30-cm

René Philombe was an African novelist, poet, playwright, and journalist. The Cameroon Tribune called him “one of the most influential personalities in the new wave of creative writing in Cameroon.” Philombe, a cultural and political activist from his teens, became a policeman in 1949. He unionized

Milton Babbitt: Philomel (1964) combines synthesizer with the voice, both live and recorded, of a soprano. More traditional in medium is Partitions for Piano (1957). Babbitt wrote chamber music (Composition for Four Instruments, 1948; All Set, 1957) as well as solo pieces and orchestral works. Unlike many…

Tereus: …later seduced his wife’s sister Philomela and tricked her into a sham marriage. Other versions describe the encounter as a brutal rape. In order to hide his guilt, Tereus cut out Philomela’s tongue. But she revealed the crime to her sister by working the details in embroidery. Procne sought revenge…

Judi Dench: …starred alongside Steve Coogan in Philomena (2013), based on the true story of a woman’s search for a child she had given up for adoption in her youth. She earned another Oscar nomination for best actress for her work on that film.

Latin literature: The 12th to the 14th century: Pecham’s Philomena praevia is an extended lyrical meditation that blends the story of the Redemption with the liturgical course of a single day.

gastropod: Classification: (Endodontidae); slugs (Arionidae and Philomycidae) in the Northern Hemisphere. Superfamily Limacacea Marginal teeth of radula with narrow, lengthened basal plates, usually unicuspid; zonitid snails with smooth shells and many sluglike species, common in wet, tropical areas and in temperate regions; about 12 families, including limacid and milacid slugs. Suborder…

Philopoemen was a general of the Achaean League notable for his restoration of Achaean military efficiency. He was trained to a career of arms by the Academic philosophers Ecdelus and Demophanes. After spending some 10 years as a mercenary leader in Crete, he returned to Achaea and was elected

John Philoponus was a Christian philosopher, theologian, and literary scholar whose writings expressed an independent Christian synthesis of classical Hellenistic thought, which in translation contributed to Syriac and Arabic cultures and to medieval Western thought. As a theologian, he proposed

John Philoponus was a Christian philosopher, theologian, and literary scholar whose writings expressed an independent Christian synthesis of classical Hellenistic thought, which in translation contributed to Syriac and Arabic cultures and to medieval Western thought. As a theologian, he proposed

Robert Burton: …work was the Latin comedy Philosophaster (1606; edited with an English translation by P. Jordan-Smith, 1931), a vivacious exposure of charlatanism that has affinities with Ben Jonson’s The Alchemist. It was acted at Christ Church in 1618.

philosophe, any of the literary men, scientists, and thinkers of 18th-century France who were united, in spite of divergent personal views, in their conviction of the supremacy and efficacy of human reason. Inspired by the philosophic thought of René Descartes, the skepticism of the Libertins, or

Jacques Rancière: …Philosophe et ses pauvres (1983; The Philosopher and His Poor) that Western philosophy since Plato has defined itself in direct opposition to manual labour.

Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin was a French visionary philosopher who was one of the leading exponents of illuminism, an 18th-century philosophical movement that attempted to refute the rationalistic philosophies prevalent in that period. After practicing law for six months at Tours, Saint-Martin

Michel-Jean Sedaine: …of a fine domestic comedy, Le Philosophe sans le savoir (1765; “The Philosopher Without Knowledge”).

Heidelberg: The Philosophenweg (Philosopher’s Way), a path that overlooks Heidelberg’s old town from the north side of the Neckar, takes its name from the university professors who found the view conducive to intellectual pursuits. The trail has since been improved and expanded, and visitors who explore its…

Jacques Rancière: …Philosophe et ses pauvres (1983; The Philosopher and His Poor) that Western philosophy since Plato has defined itself in direct opposition to manual labour.

philosopher king, idea according to which the best form of government is that in which philosophers rule. The ideal of a philosopher king was born in Plato’s dialogue Republic as part of the vision of a just city. It was influential in the Roman Empire and was revived in European political thought

Iris Murdoch: …the Sea (1978, Booker Prize), The Philosopher’s Pupil (1983), The Good Apprentice (1985), The Book and the Brotherhood (1987), The Message to the Planet (1989), and The Green Knight (1993). Murdoch’s last novel, Jackson’s Dilemma (1995), was not well received; some critics attributed the novel’s flaws to

philosopher’s stone, in Western alchemy, an unknown substance, also called “the tincture” or “the powder,” sought by alchemists for its supposed ability to transform base metals into precious ones, especially gold and silver. Alchemists also believed that an elixir of life could be derived from it.

Heidelberg: The Philosophenweg (Philosopher’s Way), a path that overlooks Heidelberg’s old town from the north side of the Neckar, takes its name from the university professors who found the view conducive to intellectual pursuits. The trail has since been improved and expanded, and visitors who explore its…

Hippolyte Taine: Attack on eclecticism: These were Les Philosophes français du XIXe siècle (1857; “The French Philosophers of the 19th Century”), a critical polemic against the prevailing eclectic philosophy of Victor Cousin and his group, which also provides in its later chapters a lucid exposition of his own positivist theory of knowledge;…

Tommaso Campanella: …1589 to Naples, where his Philosophia sensibus demonstrata (1591; “Philosophy Demonstrated by the Senses”) was published. Reflecting Telesio’s concern for an empirical approach to philosophy, it stressed the necessity for human experience as a basis for philosophy. The work resulted in his arrest, trial, and brief imprisonment for heresy. On…

Principia, book about physics by Isaac Newton, the fundamental work for the whole of modern science. Published in 1687, the Principia lays out Newton’s three laws of motion (the basic principles of modern physics), which resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation. The Principia

Denis Diderot: Mature career: Diderot’s own Pensées philosophiques (1746; Philosophic Thoughts), an original work with new and explosive anti-Christian ideas couched in a vivid prose, contains many passages directly translated from or inspired by Shaftesbury. The proceeds of this publication, as of his allegedly indecent novel Les Bijoux indiscrets (1748), were used to meet…

philosophical anthropology, discipline within philosophy that seeks to unify the several empirical investigations of human nature in an effort to understand individuals as both creatures of their environment and creators of their own values. In the 18th century, “anthropology” was the branch of

Ernest Renan: Later writings of Ernest Renan: …Dialogues et fragments philosophiques (1876; Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments, 1899). In the first of these, however, Renan is more ironically skeptical about the hidden God than he had been. In fact, the Epicureanism of his later years masks an anxiety about death and the hereafter. His more superficial side is…

Richard Cumberland: …Legibus Naturae, Disquisitio Philosophica (1672; A Philosophical Enquiry into the Laws of Nature, 1750). Although it is basically an attack on the views of Thomas Hobbes, the book begins by a consideration of those of Hugo Grotius, Dutch jurist and theologian. Grotius had based the authenticity of the laws of…

Edmund Burke: Early life: …A contribution to aesthetic theory, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, which appeared in 1757, gave him some reputation in England and was noticed abroad, among others by Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and G.E. Lessing. In agreement with the publisher Robert Dodsley,…

probability and statistics: A new kind of regularity: Laplace argued in his Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (1825) that man’s dependence on probability was simply a consequence of imperfect knowledge. A being who could follow every particle in the universe, and who had unbounded powers of calculation, would be able to know the past and to predict the…

David Hume: Mature works: …it is better known as An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, the title Hume gave to it in a revision of 1758. The Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751) was a rewriting of Book III of the Treatise. It was in those later works that Hume expressed his mature thought.

Karl Jaspers: Postwar development of thought: …Glaube angesichts der Offenbarung (1962; Philosophical Faith and Revelation, 1967). Since all thought in its essence rests on beliefs, he reasoned, the task confronting man is to free philosophical thinking from all attachments to the transient objects of this world. To replace previous objectifications of all metaphysical and religious systems,…

Hegelianism: Anti-Hegelian criticism: …in his Philosophiske Smuler (1844; Philosophical Fragments) and his Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift (1846; Concluding Unscientific Postscript)—Kierkegaard waged a continuous polemic against the philosophy of Hegel. He regarded Hegel as motivated by the spirit of the harmonious dialectical conciliation of every opposition and as committed to imposing universal and panlogistic resolutions…

analytic philosophy: The therapeutic function of philosophy: …As Wittgenstein observed in the Philosophical Investigations (1953), the aim of philosophy is “to shew the fly the way out of the fly-bottle.”

philosophy of mind, reflection on the nature of mental phenomena and especially on the relation of the mind to the body and to the rest of the physical world. Philosophy is often concerned with the most general questions about the nature of things: What is the nature of beauty? What is it to have

philosophical radical, adherent of the utilitarian political philosophy that stemmed from the 18th- and 19th-century English jurist Jeremy Bentham and culminated in the doctrine of the 19th-century English philosopher John Stuart Mill. Bentham believed that “Nature has placed mankind under the

education: The psychology and pedagogy of Herbart: …Fichte’s teachings and turned to philosophical realism, which asserts that underlying the world of appearances there is a plurality of things or “reals.” Change consists simply in the alteration in the relations between these reals, which resist the changed relationships as a matter of self-preservation.

Christianity: The design (or teleological) argument: Tennant (Philosophical Theology, 1928–30) and Richard Swinburne (using Thomas Bayes’s probability theorem in The Existence of God, 1979), taking account not only of the order and functioning of nature but also of the “fit” between human intelligence and the universe, whereby humans can understand its workings,…

probability and statistics: Probability as the logic of uncertainty: …1710 and published in its Philosophical Transactions in 1712. Arbuthnot presented there a table of christenings in London from 1629 to 1710. He observed that in every year there was a slight excess of male over female births. The proportion, approximately 14 boys for every 13 girls, was perfectly calculated,…

probability and statistics: Probability as the logic of uncertainty: …1710 and published in its Philosophical Transactions in 1712. Arbuthnot presented there a table of christenings in London from 1629 to 1710. He observed that in every year there was a slight excess of male over female births. The proportion, approximately 14 boys for every 13 girls, was perfectly calculated,…

Percy Bysshe Shelley: …British society, and he drafted A Philosophical View of Reform, his longest (though incomplete) prose work, urging moderate reform to prevent a bloody revolution that might lead to new tyranny. Too radical to be published during Shelley’s lifetime, The Masque of Anarchy appeared after the reformist elections of 1832, Peter…

Karl Jaspers: Transition to philosophy of Karl Jaspers: …three volumes of Philosophie (Philosophy, 1969) appeared—perhaps the most systematic presentation of Existential philosophy in the German language. A book on Max Weber also appeared in 1932.

metaphysics: Continental metaphysics in the 20th century: In his essay Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft (1910–11; “Philosophy as Rigorous Science”) and other works, Husserl was at pains to show that transcendental phenomenology can reestablish the traditional goals of first philosophy on an immanent, nonspeculative basis. Husserl thereby suggested that, through the phenomenological approach, one could arrive…

Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire: …he would later summarize in Philosophie anatomique, 2 vol. (1818–22). His studies on embryos supplied important evidence for his views on the unity of organic composition among vertebrates, which he now defined in three parts: the law of development, whereby no organ arises or disappears suddenly, explaining vestiges; the law…

Antoine Watteau: Posthumous reputation. of Antoine Watteau: 1856 the Goncourt brothers published “Philosophie de Watteau,” in which they compared him to Rubens. Marcel Proust, at the end of the century, was among those who best sensed Watteau’s greatness. Eventually the esteem Watteau enjoyed in the circle of art lovers, poets, and novelists extended to the broad public.

phenomenology: Basic principles: …which was later expanded into Philosophie der Arithmetik: Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen (1891; Philosophy of Arithmetic: Psychological and Logical Investigations). Numbers are not found ready-made in nature but result from a mental achievement. Here Husserl was preoccupied with the question of how something like the constitution of numbers ever comes…

Ernst Cassirer: (1923–29; The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms), he examined the mental images and the functions of the mind that underlie every manifestation of human culture.

philosophy of as if: … in his major philosophical work Die Philosophie des Als Ob (1911; The Philosophy of “As If”), which proposed that man willingly accept falsehoods or fictions in order to live peacefully in an irrational world. Vaihinger, who saw life as a maze of contradictions and philosophy as a search for means…

Nicolai Hartmann: In his two-volume Die Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus (1923–29; “The Philosophy of German Idealism”), however, Hartmann showed signs of rejecting Neo-Kantian views. The rejection was completed by his reversal of the Kantian position that mind constructs reality through thought, a position renounced in Neue Wege der Ontologie (1942;…

Georg Simmel: In Philosophie des Geldes (1900; 6th ed., 1958; The Philosophy of Money, 1978), he applied his general principles to a particular subject, economics, stressing the role of a money economy in specializing social activity and depersonalizing individual and social relationships. In the last decade of his…