Greek law: …of an enforcement proceeding (praxis). The claim (dikē) might be raised by the plaintiff in pursuance of a private right or as a “public” (dēmosia) dikē for the purpose of obtaining the defendant’s punishment. The filing of a public dikē (technically called a graphē) was open to every citizen.…

Fay Weldon: Praxis (1978) is noted for the development of its heroine, who endures in the face of repeated disasters. Puffball (1980), a novel about motherhood, combines supernatural elements with technical information about pregnancy. The Life and Loves of a She-Devil (1983) is critical of the roles…

Prospero Farinacci: …was an Italian jurist whose Praxis et Theorica Criminalis (1616) was the strongest influence on penology in Roman-law countries until the reforms of the criminologist-economist Cesare Beccaria (1738–94). The Praxis is most noteworthy as the definitive work on the jurisprudence of torture.

chorale: …edited the first editions of Praxis Pietatis Melica, a collection of tunes first published in 1644.

chorale: …edited the first editions of Praxis Pietatis Melica, a collection of tunes first published in 1644.

Praxiteles was the greatest of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century bce and one of the most original of Greek artists. By transforming the detached and majestic style of his immediate predecessors into one of gentle grace and sensuous charm, he profoundly influenced the subsequent course of Greek

Helen Hamilton Gardener: …with A Thoughtless Yes (1890), Pray You, Sir, Whose Daughter? (1892), Pushed by Unseen Hands (1892), and An Unofficial Patriot (1894), a fictionalized biography of her father that was later successfully dramatized by James A. Herne as Griffith Davenport, Circuit Rider. Many of her articles on social questions were collected…

William Jermyn Florence: In 1853 he married Malvina Pray, and thereafter the two generally appeared together on the stage—he usually as an Irishman and she as a Yankee.

Prayagraj, city, southern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It is situated at the confluence of the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna (Jumna) rivers, about 65 miles (100 km) west-northwest of Varanasi (Benares). Prayagraj stands on the site of ancient Prayag, a holy city that was comparable in fame to

Prayagraj, city, southern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It is situated at the confluence of the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna (Jumna) rivers, about 65 miles (100 km) west-northwest of Varanasi (Benares). Prayagraj stands on the site of ancient Prayag, a holy city that was comparable in fame to

prayer, an act of communication by humans with the sacred or holy—God, the gods, the transcendent realm, or supernatural powers. Found in all religions in all times, prayer may be a corporate or personal act utilizing various forms and techniques. Prayer has been described in its sublimity as “an

rosary, (from Latin rosarium, “rose garden”), religious exercise in which prayers are recited and counted on a string of beads or a knotted cord. By extension, the beads or cord may also be called a rosary. The practice is widespread, occurring in virtually every major religious tradition in the

Book of Common Prayer, liturgical book used by churches of the Anglican Communion. First authorized for use in the Church of England in 1549, it was radically revised in 1552, with subsequent minor revisions in 1559, 1604, and 1662. The prayer book of 1662, with minor changes, has continued as the

Tibet: Customs: …tradition is the hoisting of prayer flags on rooftops, tents, hilltops, and almost anywhere a Tibetan can be found. These flags signify fortune and good luck. The use of prayer wheels (Tibetan mani chos ’khor), which are spun during prayers in lieu of orally reciting mantras, is also common among…

church year: Protestant churches: …observed during the Octave or Week of Prayer for Christian Unity, January 18–25—a custom started by Paul James Wattson of the Franciscan Friars of the Atonement and developed by Abbé Paul Couturier. The week is jointly sponsored by the World Council of Churches and the Vatican Secretariat for Promoting Christian…

Chinese architecture: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644): Exceptional is the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests (Qiniandian) at the Temple of Heaven, a descendant of the ancient Mingtang state temple. It took its present circular form about 1530. Its three concentric circles of columns, which range up to 18 metres (59 feet) in height, symbolize…

Ernesto Cardenal: …Monroe, y otros poemas (1965; Prayer for Marilyn Monroe, and Other Poems), the earlier prophetic tone is linked to contemporary events: the death of the film actress Marilyn Monroe serves as an example of what Cardenal sees as the dehumanizing corruption of the capitalist system. Clichés, slogans, newspaper clippings, and…

John Irving: …personalities beset by tragedy, and A Prayer for Owen Meany (1989; adapted as the film Simon Birch, 1998), about the effects of a diminutive boy with messianic qualities on the life of the narrator, Irving continued to refine his use of hyperbole and the surreal to illuminate the human condition.…

Ben Okri: …collections from this time included Prayer for the Living (2019). A Way of Being Free (1997) and A Time for New Dreams (2011) are collections of Okri’s essays. Although typically not overtly political, Okri’s works nevertheless convey clear and urgent messages about the need for Africans to reforge their identities.

The Prayer of Azariah, apocryphal insertion into The Book of Daniel in the Greek (Septuagint) Bible and subsequently included in the Latin (Vulgate) Bible and the Roman Catholic biblical canon. The Prayer of Azariah and the accompanying Song of the Three Young Men form part of chapter three and

prayer plant, (Maranta leuconeura), flowering plant of the family Marantaceae, native to the New World tropics. It has spreading leaves that turn upward toward evening, seemingly in prayer for evening vespers. The plant can be grown as a ground cover in suitable climates and is a common houseplant

Marantaceae, the prayer plant or arrowroot family (order Zingiberales), composed of about 31 genera and about 550 species. Members of the family are native to moist or swampy tropical forests, particularly in the Americas but also in Africa and Asia. Several species are cultivated as ornamentals or

rosary: In Christianity: In Eastern Orthodoxy the prayer rope predates the Catholic rosary and is mainly a monastic devotion. Rosaries of 33, 100, or 300 knots or beads are the common sizes, and they are used to count repetitions of the Prayer of the Heart (the Jesus Prayer). The Russian Orthodox vertitza…

prayer rug, one of the major types of rug produced in central and western Asia, used by Muslims primarily to cover the bare ground or floor while they pray. Prayer rugs are characterized by the prayer niche, or mihrab, an arch-shaped design at one end of the carpet. The mihrab, which probably

ṭallit, prayer shawl worn by male Jews during the daily morning service (shaḥarit); it is also worn by the leader of the service during the afternoon service (minḥa). On Yom Kippur, males wear it for all five services and on Tisha be-Av only during the afternoon service. Rectangular in shape, the

prayer wheel, in Tibetan Buddhism, a mechanical device the use of which is equivalent to the recitation of a mantra (sacred syllable or verse). The prayer wheel consists of a hollow metal cylinder, often beautifully embossed, mounted on a rod handle and containing a tightly wound scroll printed

Constantin Brancusi: Early life and works: …a young girl kneeling, entitled The Prayer, which represented the first stage of his evolution toward simplified forms. He participated for the first time in the Tinerimea Artistica exposition, an annual exhibition of new talent, in Bucharest, and rented a workshop in the Montparnasse area of Paris. Rodin’s influence appeared…

brush drawing: …famous drawing by Albrecht Dürer, Praying Hands (1508). Brush drawing was used by many 20th-century artists, notably Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Max Beckmann.

prayer plant, (Maranta leuconeura), flowering plant of the family Marantaceae, native to the New World tropics. It has spreading leaves that turn upward toward evening, seemingly in prayer for evening vespers. The plant can be grown as a ground cover in suitable climates and is a common houseplant

mantid, (family Mantidae), any of approximately 2,000 species of large, slow-moving insects that are characterized by front legs with enlarged femurs (upper portion) that have a groove lined with spines into which the tibia (lower portion) presses. Using their spined front legs, mantids, which feed

mantid, (family Mantidae), any of approximately 2,000 species of large, slow-moving insects that are characterized by front legs with enlarged femurs (upper portion) that have a groove lined with spines into which the tibia (lower portion) presses. Using their spined front legs, mantids, which feed

Mario Praz was an Italian literary critic and essayist, a preeminent scholar of English literature. Praz was educated at the University of Bologna (1914–15) before receiving degrees from the Universities of Rome (1918) and Florence (1920). He then studied at the British Museum in London (1923–25)

anthelmintic: Cestode anthelmintics: Praziquantel also produces tetanus-like contractions of the musculature of the worm. Unlike albendazole, praziquantel is readily absorbed from the intestinal tract. It is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic affecting both flukes and tapeworms.

prazo, any of the great feudal estates acquired by Portuguese and Goan traders and soldiers in the valley of the Zambezi River in what is now Mozambique. Begun in the 16th century as an attempt at colonization, the prazo system was formalized in the mid-17th century. While giving titular obedience

Prague Castle, collective name for an aggregation of palaces, churches, offices, fortifications, courtyards, and gardens in Prague, covering approximately 110 acres (45 hectares). The castle was formerly the seat of the kings of Bohemia and is currently the official residence of the president of

Samuel K. Doe: …of general and established a People’s Redemption Council (PRC) composed of himself and 14 other low-ranking officers to rule the country. Doe suspended the nation’s constitution until 1984, when a new constitution was approved by referendum. In 1985 he won a presidential election that was denounced as fraudulent by some…

B-film: …studios were collectively known as Poverty Row, Gower Gulch, or the B-Hive.

China 1, first Earth satellite orbited by the People’s Republic of China. It was launched on April 24, 1970, from the rocket facility at Shuang Cheng Tsu, and it made China the fifth nation to place a satellite into Earth orbit. Little is known about China 1. It weighed approximately 173 kg (381

rodeo: Origins and history: …(RCA) in 1945 and the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) in 1975, and its rules became accepted by most rodeos.

FDP. The Liberals, centrist political party of Switzerland formed in 2009 by the merger of the Radical Democratic Party (German: Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei der Schweiz [FDP]) and the Liberal Party (German: Liberale Partei der Schweiz [LPS]). FDP. The Liberals assumed the role previously held

Ricardo Martinelli: …the candidate of the ruling Democratic Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Democrático; PRD), Balbina Herrera, was considered the favourite, but Martinelli’s campaign promise of “real change” resonated among poor voters. Moreover, he already had the support of many of Panama’s business leaders. He won by a wide margin, garnering some 60…

Andrés Manuel López Obrador: Early life and political career: …Cárdenas’s electoral coalition, the centre-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).

Juan Bosch: …in 1939 founded the leftist Dominican Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Dominicano; PRD). The PRD was the first well-organized political party of the Dominican Republic and the only one with a constructive program ready to implement after Trujillo’s death in 1961. Bosch, a dazzling and charismatic orator, won a landslide victory…

Abdalá Bucaram: …1982 Bucaram founded the leftist Ecuadoran Roldosist Party (Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano; PRE), and two years later he was elected mayor of Guayaquil. His two terms in office (1984–92) were marked by controversy. Businessmen accused him of extortion; they claimed that he demanded money and harassed those who refused to pay.…

Steve Prefontaine was a long-distance runner who is often regarded as one of the most important figures in American running, known for both his athletic prowess and celebrity. At his untimely death in 1975, Prefontaine held every American record in races between 2,000 and 10,000 meters. His style,

Southeast Asian arts: Kingdom of Khmer: 9th–13th century: Pre Rup, dedicated in 961, was probably the first of the temple mountains intended as a permanent shrine for the divine spirit of a king after his death. It, too, has a quincunx of principal shrines, but it is distinguished by the large number of…

Stone Age: Neolithic: …late Dryas period during the Pre-Boreal and the Boreal (c. 8000–5500 bce, determined by radiocarbon dating) caused a remarkable change in late glacial flora and fauna. Thus, the Mediterranean zone became the centre of the first cultural modifications leading from the last hunters and food gatherers to the earliest farmers.…

Japanese art: Formative period: …that of a Paleolithic, or Pre-Ceramic, stage dating from approximately 30,000 bce (although some posit an initial date as early as 200,000 bce); the Jōmon period (c. 10,500–c. 3rd century bce), variously subdivided; the Yayoi period (c. 3rd century bce–c. 250 ce); and the Tumulus, or Kofun, period (c. 250–710…

Christianity: Oriental Orthodoxy: The other main branch of Orthodoxy is constituted by the six national churches of the Oriental Orthodox communion: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East,

Moche, Andean civilization that flourished from the 1st to the 8th century ce on the northern coast of what is now Peru. The name is taken from the great site of Moche, in the river valley of the same name, which appears to have been the capital or chief city of the Moche peoples. Their settlements

American Indian: Early cultural development: Known to archaeologists as Formative or pre-Classic peoples, these groups established agricultural villages by 1800 bce. From this point until the beginning of the Common Era, Formative peoples such as the Olmec built large towns and developed increasingly complex architecture, art, and religion.

Chinese languages: Pre-Classical Chinese: The history of the Chinese language can be divided into three periods, pre-Classical (c. 1500 bc–c. ad 200), Classical (c. 200–c. 1920), and post-Classical Chinese (with important forerunners as far back as the Tang dynasty).

Archaic period, in history and archaeology, the earliest phases of a culture; the term is most frequently used by art historians to denote the period of artistic development in Greece from about 650 to 480 bc, the date of the Persian sack of Athens. During the Archaic period, Greek art became less

sacrament: Sacramental ideas and practices of pre-Columbian America: The recurrent and widespread practice of holding sacred meals in the sacramental system, in addition to being well documented in the Greco-Roman world, also occurred in the pre-Columbian Mexican calendrical ritual in association with human sacrifice on a grand scale. In the May…

pre-Columbian civilizations, the aboriginal American Indian cultures that evolved in Mesoamerica (part of Mexico and Central America) and the Andean region (western South America) prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century. The pre-Columbian civilizations were extraordinary

sound recording: The phonograph disc: …the plastic disc—a process called pre-emphasis. Upon playback this sequence is reversed in a process called equalization, providing the listener with a linear and realistic sound.

pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), medication taken prior to having unprotected sex or sharing needles that helps lower the risk of becoming infected with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the cause of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved

archaeology: First steps to archaeology: … coined it in his book Pre-historic Times (1865).

Anatolian art and architecture: Pre-Hittite period: Anatolian excavations have done much to illuminate the genesis of visual arts in the earliest settled communities. In a Neolithic setting, at Çatalhüyük in the Konya plain, a township covering more than 15 acres (6 hectares) and dating from…

church year: Roman Catholic Church: …of Time, the season of Pre-Lent was eliminated, and two cycles were provided: (1) the principal seasons, Sundays, and holy days from Advent to Pentecost and (2) a schedule of 33 Sundays per annum to be observed in numbered sequence in place of the Sundays previously designated “after Epiphany” and…

transcription: …of transcription is called a pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA is extensively edited through splicing before the mature mRNA is produced and ready for translation by the ribosome, the cellular organelle that serves as the site of protein synthesis. Transcription of any one gene takes place at the chromosomal location of that gene,…

Precambrian, period of time extending from about 4.6 billion years ago (the point at which Earth began to form) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, 541 million years ago. The Precambrian encompasses the Archean and Proterozoic eons, which are formal geologic intervals that lasted from 4

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, group of young British painters who banded together in 1848 in reaction against what they conceived to be the unimaginative and artificial historical painting of the Royal Academy and who purportedly sought to express a new moral seriousness and sincerity in their works.

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, group of young British painters who banded together in 1848 in reaction against what they conceived to be the unimaginative and artificial historical painting of the Royal Academy and who purportedly sought to express a new moral seriousness and sincerity in their works.

Pre-Romanticism, cultural movement in Europe from about the 1740s onward that preceded and presaged the artistic movement known as Romanticism (q.v.). Chief among these trends was a shift in public taste away from the grandeur, austerity, nobility, idealization, and elevated sentiments of

pre-Socratic philosophy, in the history of Western philosophy, the cosmological and naturalistic speculations of ancient Greek philosophers who were predecessors or contemporaries of Socrates (c. 470–399 bce). Among the most significant pre-Socratic philosophers are the Milesians Thales (c.

Whitney Houston: …Waiting to Exhale (1995) and The Preacher’s Wife (1996), and the soundtrack of each film generated hit singles for her.

Ecclesiastes, (Preacher), an Old Testament book of wisdom literature that belongs to the third section of the biblical canon, known as the Ketuvim (Writings). In the Hebrew Bible, Ecclesiastes stands between the Song of Solomon and Lamentations and with them belongs to the Megillot, five scrolls

Dominican, one of the four great mendicant orders of the Roman Catholic Church, founded by St. Dominic in 1215. Its members include friars, nuns, active sisters, and lay Dominicans. From the beginning the order has been a synthesis of the contemplative life and the active ministry. The members live

oratory: …Greek and Roman rhetoric was religious oratory. For more than 1,000 years after Cicero the important orators were churchmen rather than politicians, lawyers, or military spokesmen. This tradition derived from the Judaean prophets, such as Jeremiah and Isaiah, and in the Christian Era, from the Apostle Paul, his evangelistic colleagues,…

Norodom Sihanouk was twice king of Cambodia (1941–55 and 1993–2004), who also served as prime minister, head of state, and president. He attempted to steer a neutral course for Cambodia in its civil and foreign wars of the late 20th century. Sihanouk was, on his mother’s side, the grandson of King

Cambodia: Cultural institutions: In 2008 the Temple of Preah Vihear, dedicated to the worship of Shiva, was also named a World Heritage site.

Cambodia, country on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia. Cambodia is largely a land of plains and great rivers and lies amid important overland and river trade routes linking China to India and Southeast Asia. The influences of many Asian cultures, alongside those of France and the United

Preakness Stakes, a 1 3 16 -mile (about 1,900-metre) flat race for three-year-old Thoroughbred horses, held at Pimlico Race Course, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S., annually in mid-May. Fillies carry 121 pounds (55 kg), colts 126 pounds (57 kg). The Preakness Stakes is the second (and shortest) race of

treaty: The preamble provides the names and styles of the contracting parties and is a statement of the treaty’s general objectives. It is usually followed by the articles containing the agreed-upon stipulations. If the treaty is concluded for a definite period, a statement of the period follows;…

Indonesia: Growth and impact of the Dutch East India Company: …received the cession of the Preanger regions of western Java.

Preanger system, revenue system introduced in the 18th century in Preanger (now Priangan) of western Java (now part of Indonesia) by the Dutch East India Company and continued by the Dutch until 1916. In this system the company required its regents to deliver specified annual quotas of coffee but

Preanger system, revenue system introduced in the 18th century in Preanger (now Priangan) of western Java (now part of Indonesia) by the Dutch East India Company and continued by the Dutch until 1916. In this system the company required its regents to deliver specified annual quotas of coffee but

primitive culture: European peasant society: These workers are called prebendal in English (French provendiers) because they were provisioned and housed at the master’s expense. The only difference between a prebendal worker and a slave was the freedom of the prebendal worker to leave if he was dissatisfied.

nutraceutical: Diverse groups of nutraceuticals: …lactating women, and probiotic and prebiotic yogurt. (Prebiotics are nondigestible nutrients that serve as an energy source for bacteria that assist with the breakdown of food in the human digestive tract.)

Raúl Prebisch was an Argentine economist and statesman. Serving in various positions in Argentine government and academia, he advised developing countries to stimulate domestic manufacturing to reduce their reliance on imports and thus their dependence on the industrialized nations. He also

Edward Preble was a commander of U.S. naval forces during the most active portion of the Tripolitan War (1801–05). The son of provincial military officer, merchant, and political leader Jedidiah Preble and of Mehetable Bangs Roberts, Edward Preble received his early education in his native Falmouth

Stone Age: Neolithic: …late Dryas period during the Pre-Boreal and the Boreal (c. 8000–5500 bce, determined by radiocarbon dating) caused a remarkable change in late glacial flora and fauna. Thus, the Mediterranean zone became the centre of the first cultural modifications leading from the last hunters and food gatherers to the earliest farmers.…

Stone Age: Neolithic: …late Dryas period during the Pre-Boreal and the Boreal (c. 8000–5500 bce, determined by radiocarbon dating) caused a remarkable change in late glacial flora and fauna. Thus, the Mediterranean zone became the centre of the first cultural modifications leading from the last hunters and food gatherers to the earliest farmers.…

Precambrian, period of time extending from about 4.6 billion years ago (the point at which Earth began to form) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, 541 million years ago. The Precambrian encompasses the Archean and Proterozoic eons, which are formal geologic intervals that lasted from 4

Precambrian, period of time extending from about 4.6 billion years ago (the point at which Earth began to form) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, 541 million years ago. The Precambrian encompasses the Archean and Proterozoic eons, which are formal geologic intervals that lasted from 4

Africa: The Precambrian: The oldest rocks consist of gneisses, granites, metasediments, and metavolcanic rocks 3.6 to 2.5 billion years old; all are variably deformed and metamorphosed to some degree. The best-preserved assemblages occur in the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons and contain large deposits of gold and sulfide…

Canadian Shield, one of the world’s largest geologic continental shields, centred on Hudson Bay and extending for 8 million square km (3 million square miles) over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada from the Great Lakes to the Canadian Arctic and into Greenland, with small extensions into

Precambrian, period of time extending from about 4.6 billion years ago (the point at which Earth began to form) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, 541 million years ago. The Precambrian encompasses the Archean and Proterozoic eons, which are formal geologic intervals that lasted from 4

Cambrian Period: Fossil record of the Precambrian-Cambrian transition: The preservation of the record of the Precambrian-Cambrian transition was significantly affected by global changes in sea level. During latest Precambrian time, the sea level was relatively low, resulting in spatially restricted oceans and expanded continents. Throughout much of the Cambrian, rising seas…

capillary: …intermediate vessels called precapillaries, or metarterioles, that, unlike the capillaries, have muscle fibres that permit them to contract; thus the precapillaries are able to control the emptying and filling of the capillaries.

John Dewey: The precarious: For Dewey, a precarious event is one that somehow makes ongoing experience problematic; thus, any obstacle, disruption, danger, or surprise of any kind is precarious. As noted earlier, because humanity is a part of nature, all things that humans encounter in their daily…

France: Diffusion of political power: …duration of his life) and precarious contract (a powerful lord received certain services in return for the use of his land for a limited time under advantageous conditions). In the 8th century the Pippinids increased their personal circle of followers. Charlemagne sought to establish a personal bond with the entire…

precast concrete, Concrete cast into structural members under factory conditions and then brought to the building site. A 20th-century development, precasting increases the strength and finish durability of the member and decreases time and construction costs. Concrete cures slowly; the design

James Fenimore Cooper: Early years: Precaution (1820) was a plodding imitation of Jane Austen’s novels of English gentry manners. It is mainly interesting today as a document in the history of American cultural colonialism and as an example of a clumsy attempt to imitate Jane Austen’s investigation of the ironic…

precautionary principle, approach in policy making that legitimizes the adoption of preventative measures to address potential risks to the public or environment associated with certain activities or policies. The concept of the precautionary principle emerged in the 1970s–80s in German

vena cava: …of two major trunks, the anterior and posterior venae cavae, that deliver oxygen-depleted blood to the right side of the heart. The anterior vena cava, also known as the precava, drains the head end of the body, while the posterior vena cava, or postcava, drains the tail, or rear, end.…

precedent, in law, a judgment or decision of a court that is cited in a subsequent dispute as an example or analogy to justify deciding a similar case or point of law in the same manner. Common law and equity, as found in English and American legal systems, rely strongly on the body of established

library: The role of the European monasteries: …under the supervision of a precentor, one of whose duties was to issue the books and take daily inventory of them. Scriptoria, the places where manuscripts were copied out, were a common feature of the monasteries—again, especially in those of the Benedictine order, where there was a strict obligation to…

Ram Mohan Roy: Early life: …four Gospels, under the title Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness.