Poland: Political process: …Poland was governed by the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza), the country’s communist party, which was modeled on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The postwar government was run as a dual system in which state organs were controlled by parallel organs of the PUWP.…

Poland: Political process: …Poland was governed by the Polish United Workers’ Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza), the country’s communist party, which was modeled on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The postwar government was run as a dual system in which state organs were controlled by parallel organs of the PUWP.…

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, dual Polish-Lithuanian state or “Commonwealth” (Polish: Rzeczpospolita) that was created by the Union of Lublin on July 1, 1569. During its existence it was one of the largest countries in Europe. While Poland in the mid-16th century occupied an area of about 100,000

Poland: Sigismund III Vasa: …policy that contributed to a war with Turkey. Poland suffered a major defeat at Cecorą in 1620 but was victorious at Chocim (now in Khotyn, Ukraine) and negotiated peace a year later. The victory at Chocim was memorialized by poet Wacław Potocki a half century later.

flatware: …surfaces are dull and require polishing. Hand polishing is performed by holding the articles upon rapidly rotating mops dressed with an aluminum compound or rouge. The least expensive plating process is “bright plating,” in which a very thin coating of silver or chromium is deposited bright, thus eliminating final polishing.…

abrasive: Other abrasive products: Polishing sticks consist of waxes or greases impregnated with various-sized abrasive grains, depending on the particular requirements of the work.

Pripet Marshes, vast waterlogged region of eastern Europe, among the largest wetlands of the European continent. The Pripet Marshes occupy southern Belarus and northern Ukraine. They lie in the thickly forested basin of the Pripet River (a major tributary of the Dnieper) and are bounded on the

Ukraine: Plant and animal life: The Polissya zone lies in the northwest and north. More than one-third of its area—about 44,000 square miles (114,000 square km)—is arable land. Nearly one-quarter of it is covered with mixed woodland, including oak, elm, birch, hornbeam, ash, maple, pine, linden, alder, poplar, willow, and beech.…

paper wasp, (genus Polistes), any of a group of wasps in the family Vespidae (order Hymenoptera) that are striking in appearance, about 16 mm (0.63 inch) long, with orange antennae, wings, and tarsi. The body may be jet black or brown with narrow yellow bands and paired segmental spots. The sting

China: Constitutional framework: …CCP—the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau (Politburo), the Political Bureau itself, and the Secretariat—has varied a great deal, and from 1966 until the late 1970s the Secretariat did not function at all. There is in any case a partial overlap of membership among these organs and between these top…

Politburo, in Russian and Soviet history, the supreme policy-making body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Politburo until July 1990 exercised supreme control over the Soviet government; in 1990 the Politburo was enlarged and was separated to a certain degree from control over the

Carlo Cattaneo: …the Risorgimento and whose journal, Il Politecnico (“The Polytechnic”), not only served as a vehicle for his political views but also was influential in introducing new scientific and technical improvements into Italy.

The Republic, one of the most important dialogues of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, renowned for its detailed expositions of political and ethical justice and its account of the organization of the ideal state (or city-state)—hence the traditional title of the work. As do other dialogues from

constitution: …Greek word for constitution (politeia) in several different senses. The simplest and most neutral of these was “the arrangement of the offices in a polis” (state). In this purely descriptive sense of the word, every state has a constitution, no matter how badly or erratically governed it may be.

Polytechnical Museum, in Moscow, museum of science and technology that emphasizes the history of Soviet science and technology and contemporary developments and inventions. The museum was founded in 1872 after the first Russian technical exhibition on the bicentennial anniversary of the birth of

Philip II: Last years: In his Politics a few years later he used this incident as an example of a monarch murdered for private and personal motives—which would have been a puerile indiscretion if either he or the world in general had ever taken the canard seriously.

Johannes Althusius: …but his principal work was Politica methodice digesta atque exemplis sacris et profanis illustrata (1603, enlarged 1610 and 1614; Politics Methodically Set Forth, and Illustrated with Sacred and Profane Examples), a systematized tract on all forms of human association.

political action committee (PAC), in U.S. politics, an organization whose purpose is to raise and distribute campaign funds to candidates seeking political office. PACs are generally formed by corporations, labour unions, trade associations, or other organizations or individuals and channel the

anthropology: Political and legal anthropology: …intellectual and methodological roots of political anthropology can be traced to Montesquieu and Alexis de Tocqueville, who viewed politics and governance as cultural constructs, Elizabeth Colson dated the modern field of political anthropology to 1940 and the publication of African Political Systems (1940), edited by Meyer Fortes and Edward Evans-Pritchard.…

probability and statistics: Political arithmetic: During the 19th century, statistics grew up as the empirical science of the state and gained preeminence as a form of social knowledge. Population and economic numbers had been collected, though often not in a systematic way, since ancient times and in many…

asylum, in international law, the protection granted by a state to a foreign citizen against his own state. The person for whom asylum is established has no legal right to demand it, and the sheltering state has no obligation to grant it. The right of asylum falls into three basic categories:

political science: Developments outside the United States: …Tingsten (1896–1973), in his seminal Political Behaviour: Studies in Election Statistics (1937), developed the connections between social groups and their voting tendencies. Before World War II the large areas of the world that were colonies or dictatorships made few important contributions to the growth of political science.

Politburo, in Russian and Soviet history, the supreme policy-making body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Politburo until July 1990 exercised supreme control over the Soviet government; in 1990 the Politburo was enlarged and was separated to a certain degree from control over the

China: Constitutional framework: …CCP—the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau (Politburo), the Political Bureau itself, and the Secretariat—has varied a great deal, and from 1966 until the late 1970s the Secretariat did not function at all. There is in any case a partial overlap of membership among these organs and between these top…

political business cycle, fluctuation of economic activity that results from an external intervention of political actors. The term political business cycle is used mainly to describe the stimulation of the economy just prior to an election in order to improve prospects of the incumbent government

interest group: Common characteristics and the importance of interest groups: …of financial support for election campaigns. In the United States the development of political action committees (PACs) after World War II was geared to providing money to candidates running for public office. In western Europe, campaign funding is provided by many interest groups, particularly trade unions for social democratic parties…

political system: Development and change in political systems: Students of political systems grapple with a subject matter that is today in constant flux. They must deal not only with the major processes of growth, decay, and breakdown but also with a ceaseless ferment of adaptation and adjustment. The magnitude and variety…

political science: Behavioralism: …of the American study in Political Change in Britain: Forces Shaping Electoral Choice (1969). They found that political generation (the era in which one was born) and “duration of partisanship” also predict party identification—that is, the length of time one has been a partisan heavily predicts one’s vote. They also…

Political Communication, quarterly peer-reviewed interdisciplinary academic journal that published research in the fields of politics and communications. Political Communication began publishing in 1994 and was jointly sponsored by the International Communication Association (ICA) and the American

Jacques Bainville: …de la paix (1920; “The Political Consequences of the Peace”), in which he attacked the Treaty of Versailles and predicted the danger of a unified Germany. His Histoire de France (1924) was later republished with other studies under the title Heur et malheur des français (“The Fortunes and Misfortunes of…

China: Attempts to end the war: …the convening of a multiparty Political Consultative Council to plan a liberalized postwar government and to draft a constitution for submission to a national congress. Still, the sides were far apart over the character of the new government, control over the areas liberated by the communists, and the size and…

American Association of Political Consultants: …organization founded in 1969 for political consultants, lobbyists, media producers, fund-raisers, and campaign workers at all levels of government. The American Association of Political Consultants (AAPC) is a multi-partisan organization. Headquarters are in McLean, Virginia.

political convention, meeting of delegates of a political party at the local, state, provincial, or national level to select candidates for office and to decide party policy. As representative organs of political parties, party conventions—or party conferences as they are commonly called in

political correctness (PC), term used to refer to language that seems intended to give the least amount of offense, especially when describing groups identified by external markers such as race, gender, culture, or sexual orientation. The concept has been discussed, disputed, criticized, and

political culture, in political science, a set of shared views and normative judgments held by a population regarding its political system. The notion of political culture does not refer to attitudes toward specific actors, such as a president or prime minister, but rather denotes how people view

David Hume: As an economist: …as an economist in the Political Discourses, which were incorporated in Essays and Treatises as Part II of Essays, Moral and Political. How far he influenced Adam Smith remains uncertain: they had broadly similar principles, and both had the excellent habit of illustrating and supporting these from history. He did…

Czechoslovak history: Normalization and political dissidence: ” As first secretary, Husák patiently tried to persuade Soviet leaders that Czechoslovakia was a loyal member of the Warsaw Pact. He had the constitution amended to embody the newly proclaimed Brezhnev Doctrine, which asserted the right of the Soviet Union to intervene militarily if…

anthropology: Environmental and ecological studies in anthropology: The approach known as political ecology criticizes it for portraying premodern societies as timeless and outside of history. Other anthropologists, working under the label historical ecology, reject not only the equilibrium approach but also the notion of static nonhuman environments, stressing that all environments inhabited by human societies in…

political economy, branch of social science that studies the relationships between individuals and society and between markets and the state, using a diverse set of tools and methods drawn largely from economics, political science, and sociology. The term political economy is derived from the Greek

Thomas Tooke: …1821 he helped found the Political Economy Club, whose members included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill.

Noam Chomsky: Politics of Noam Chomsky: In The Political Economy of Human Rights, for example, Chomsky and Herman compared reporting on Indonesia’s military invasion and occupation of East Timor with reporting on the behaviour of the communist Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. The events in the two cases took place in approximately…

Alexander von Humboldt: Professional life in Paris of Alexander von Humboldt: Lastly, his Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain contained a wealth of material on the geography and geology of Mexico, including descriptions of its political, social, and economic conditions, and also extensive population statistics. Humboldt’s impassioned outcry in this work against the inhumanities of slavery…

geography: Influence of the social sciences: Political geography was a marginal subdiscipline for several decades after World War II, with geopolitical thinking disparaged because of its association with the work of geographers in 1930s Nazi Germany. Its revival involved regaining an appreciation of how influential political thinkers and politicians develop and…

historiography: Political history: For many people, and for many years, “history” simply meant political history. A large proportion of published works by historians was devoted to political history as late as the 1970s, but even before that time historians had begun to examine other topics. Although E.A.…

William Hone: His The Political House That Jack Built (1819), the first and most famous of a series of satires that he produced with the caricaturist George Cruikshank, ran into 54 editions but failed to keep Hone solvent. A bankruptcy (1828) followed his imprisonment for debts incurred in…

ideology, a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones. It is a system of ideas that aspires both to explain the world and to change it. This article describes the nature, history, and significance of ideologies in terms of the

intelligence: Types of intelligence: Political intelligence is at once the most sought-after and the least reliable of the various types of intelligence. Because no one can predict with absolute certainty the effects of the political forces in a foreign country, analysts are reduced to making forecasts of alternatives based…

Islamism, broad set of political ideologies that utilize and draw inspiration from Islamic symbols and traditions in pursuit of a sociopolitical objective. The aims and objectives of these movements vary widely, as do their interpretations of Islamic tradition and practice, and, as such, the

anarchism: English anarchist thought: In his masterpiece, Political Justice (1793), Godwin not only presents the classic anarchist argument that authority is against nature and that social evils exist because men are not free to act according to reason, he also sketches out a decentralized society composed of small autonomous communities, or parishes.…

John Rawls: In Political Liberalism (1993), Rawls revised the argument for the two principles of justice by construing the contracting individuals as representatives of conflicting comprehensive worldviews in a pluralistic democracy. Other works by Rawls included The Law of Peoples (1999; published together with his essay “The Idea…

liberty: Political liberty consists of the right of individuals to participate in government by voting and by holding public office. Since the proletarian and socialist movements and the economic dislocations after World War I, liberty has been increasingly defined in terms of economic opportunity and security.…

Brazilian literature: Resistance literature during military rule, 1964–85: Political literature in Brazil is not usually treated as a separate category. However, owing to the significant impact that the military regime exerted upon culture and literature between 1964 and 1985, this period can be classified as a notable and separate period of expression in…

political machine, in U.S. politics, a party organization, headed by a single boss or small autocratic group, that commands enough votes to maintain political and administrative control of a city, county, or state. The rapid growth of American cities in the 19th century, a result of both

political science: Behavioralism: >Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (1960) used statistical and historical data to demonstrate that social class is one of the chief determinants of political behaviour. Lipset infuriated Marxists by portraying elections as “the democratic class struggle” in which the working class finds its…

accountability: Some rough distinctions: …to apply to positions of public office. These comprise both political positions, where representatives or people covering other institutional roles deal with public affairs in the name and interest of the citizens, and administrative positions, where the link with the citizens is mediated by the government. The chain of accountability…

oratory: …and statesman, was a great deliberative orator. In one of his greatest speeches, “On the Crown,” he defended himself against the charge by his political rival Aeschines that he had no right to the golden crown granted him for his services to Athens. So brilliant was Demosthenes’ defense of his…

political science: Post-World War II trends and debates: …French political scientist Maurice Duverger’s Political Parties (1951) is still highly regarded, not only for its classification of parties but also for its linking of party systems with electoral systems. Duverger argued that single-member-district electoral systems that require only a plurality to win election tend to produce two-party systems, whereas…

Robert Michels: …in der modernen Demokratie (1911; Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy), he set forth his ideas on the inevitable development of oligarchies, even in organizations committed to democratic ideals, because of such organizational needs as rapid decisionmaking and full-time activity. In his later writings…

political party, a group of persons organized to acquire and exercise political power. Political parties originated in their modern form in Europe and the United States in the 19th century, along with the electoral and parliamentary systems, whose development reflects the evolution of parties. The

spoils system, practice in which the political party winning an election rewards its campaign workers and other active supporters by appointment to government posts and with other favours. The spoils system involves political activity by public employees in support of their party and the employees’

political philosophy, branch of philosophy that is concerned, at the most abstract level, with the concepts and arguments involved in political opinion. The meaning of the term political is itself one of the major problems of political philosophy. Broadly, however, one may characterize as political

partisanship: …a two-party system, known as political polarization, results in the division of a country’s entire population into two diametrically opposed political camps. Polarization of this sort can damage a country’s long-term interests, in part because the resulting dysfunction and gridlock make it difficult for any government to adequately address national…

individualism: …view is the conception of political authority as ultimately derived from or justified by a hypothetical “contract” between individuals, as in the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). Another is the idea, typical in economics and in other social sciences influenced by economics, that most social institutions and relationships can…

political prisoner, a person who is imprisoned because that person’s actions or beliefs are contrary to those of his or her government. This is the most general sense of a term that can be difficult to define. In practice, political prisoners often cannot be distinguished from other types of

Cesare Pavese: …La bella estate (1949; in The Political Prisoner, 1955). Shortly after receiving the Strega Prize for it, Pavese committed suicide in a hotel room.

history of publishing: Britain: …Institute of International Affairs; and The Political Quarterly (founded 1930), for the discussion of social and political questions from a progressive but nonparty point of view. Of the weekly political reviews, the Spectator (founded 1828), was representative of the right, and the New Statesman (founded 1913), founded by Sidney and…

Ottoman Empire: Reform efforts: The Ottoman reforms introduced during the 17th century were undertaken by Sultans Osman II (ruled 1618–22) and Murad IV (1623–40) and by the famous dynasty of Köprülü grand viziers who served under Mehmed IV (1648–87)—Köprülü Mehmed Paşa

William Cobbett: …in 1802 started a weekly, Political Register, which he published until his death in 1835. Though the Register at first supported the government, the Treaty of Amiens (1802) with France disgusted him, and he promptly called for a renewal of the war. Cobbett believed that commercial interests were dictating English…

political risk analysis, in risk management, analysis of the probability that political decisions, events, or conditions will significantly affect the profitability of a business or the expected value of a given business decision. A wide spectrum of political risks may affect business, and

Laurence Sterne: Life: …A Political Romance (later called The History of a Good Warm Watch-Coat), a Swiftian satire of dignitaries of the spiritual courts. At the demands of embarrassed churchmen, the book was burned. Thus, Sterne lost his chances for clerical advancement but discovered his real talents. Turning over his parishes to a…

political science, the systematic study of governance by the application of empirical and generally scientific methods of analysis. As traditionally defined and studied, political science examines the state and its organs and institutions. The contemporary discipline, however, is considerably

history of publishing: The United States: …British scholarly journals include the Political Science Quarterly (founded 1886), edited by the political science faculty of Columbia University; the American Scholar (founded 1932), “a quarterly for the independent thinker” edited by the united chapters of Phi Beta Kappa; Foreign Affairs (founded 1922), a quarterly dealing with the international aspects…

political spectrum, a model for classifying political actors, parties, or ideologies along one or more axes that compare them. Tradition dating back to the French Revolution places ideologies that prioritize social, political, and economic equality on the left side of the spectrum and ideologies

political spin, in politics, the attempt to control or influence communication in order to deliver one’s preferred message. Spin is a pejorative term often used in the context of public relations practitioners and political communicators. It is used to refer to the sophisticated selling of a

ancient Iran: The Middle Elamite period: …period the old system of succession to, and distribution of, power appears to have broken down. Increasingly, son succeeded father, and less is heard of divided authority within a federated system. This probably reflects an effort to increase the central authority at Susa in order to conduct effective military campaigns…

political system, the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state.” This is the definition adopted by many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders. More broadly defined, however, the term comprehends actual as well as

political science: Systems analysis: …employing the approach, David Easton’s The Political System (1953), conceived the political system as integrating all activities through which social policy is formulated and executed—that is, the political system is the policy-making process. Easton defined political behaviour as the “authoritative allocation of values,” or the distribution of rewards in wealth,…

Carl Schmitt: In Political Theology (1922) and Roman Catholicism and Political Form (1923), he insisted that transcendental, extrarational, and supramaterial sources are necessary to ground moral-political authority. He also held that Russian anarchism and communism represented a general revolt against authority that would destroy Europe and irrevocably degrade…

Otto Friedrich von Gierke: …English jurist Frederic William Maitland’s Political Theories of the Middle Age (1900) was a partial translation of Gierke’s longest work, Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht, 4 vol. (1868–1913; “The German Law of Associations”).

mirror for princes: …Renaissance theories of politics and political theory and thus for modern political science.

Arnold Brecht: In Political Theory (1959) he distinguished scientific from nonscientific theory. Brecht clarified the doctrine (known as standard value relativism) that ultimate values cannot be validated by science, since the value of particular goals and purposes cannot be set scientifically without knowing their relation to other goals…

treaty: …their object, as follows: (1) political treaties, including peace treaties, alliances, territorial cessions, and disarmament treaties; (2) commercial treaties, including tariff, consular, fishery, and navigation agreements; (3) constitutional and administrative treaties, such as the conventions establishing and regulating international unions, organizations, and specialized agencies; (4) treaties relating to criminal justice,…

organized labour: Characteristics of the continental labour movement: …but to define themselves as political movements—at least until conditions for independent, economic unionism had been created—and in fact they typically started out as industrial arms of political parties, usually socialist or Roman Catholic. Where political unionism was of the Roman Catholic kind, it aimed at establishing an autonomous space…

warning system: Long-term, or political, warning systems employ diplomatic, political, technological, and economic indicators to forecast hostilities. The defender may react by strengthening defenses, by negotiating treaties or concessions, or by taking other action. Political warning, equivocal and incapable of disclosing fully an attacker’s intention, often results…

Theodor Herzl: …was the founder of the political form of Zionism, a movement to establish a Jewish homeland. His pamphlet The Jewish State (1896) proposed that the Jewish question was a political question to be settled by a world council of nations. He organized a world congress of Zionists that met in…

Bill Maher: …debut of his own show, Politically Incorrect, in 1993.

Jessica Lange: …grandmother in the Netflix series The Politician.

Stoicism: Revival of Stoicism in modern times: …civilis doctrinae libri sex (1589; Six Books of Politics or Political Instruction) were widely known in many editions and translations. His defense of Stoic doctrine in Manuductio ad Stoicam Philosophiam (1604; Digest of Stoic Philosophy) and Physiologia Stoicorum (1604; Physics of the Stoics) provided the basis for the considerable Stoic…

Dwight Macdonald: …II to found the magazine Politics. It featured the work of such figures as André Gide, Albert Camus, and Marianne Moore. Macdonald, one of the first serious film critics, was a staff writer for The New Yorker (1951–71) and reviewed films for Esquire magazine (1960–66). Politically, he moved from Stalinism…

Philip II: Last years: In his Politics a few years later he used this incident as an example of a monarch murdered for private and personal motives—which would have been a puerile indiscretion if either he or the world in general had ever taken the canard seriously.

Hans Morgenthau: In 1948 Morgenthau published Politics Among Nations, a highly regarded study that presented what became commonly known as the classical realist approach to international politics. In this work, Morgenthau maintained that politics is governed by distinct immutable laws of nature and that states could deduce rational and objectively correct…

Frank J. Goodnow: In his most noted work, Politics and Administration (1900), he showed how the popular will is articulated from administration, in which expertise and hierarchy work to fulfill that will. The book influenced U.S. public administration for a half century and contributed to bureaucratic reform.

Renata Adler: …several collections of essays, including Politics and Media (1988), Canaries in the Mineshaft (2001), and After the Tall Timber (2015).

disability studies: …into academia with his book Politics of Disablement: A Sociological Approach (1990), in which he analyzed how a social issue such as disability gets cast as an individual medicalized phenomenon.

Mary Frances Berry: …Experience in America (1982); and The Politics of Parenthood: Child Care, Women’s Rights, and the Myth of the Good Mother (1993), which put forth the thesis that in order for women to work, men must take on a larger share of child care. Among her later books were The Pig…

Charles Taylor: Religion and secularity: …of his well-known essays, “The Politics of Recognition” (1992), Taylor tried to provide a deeper philosophical explanation of why groups within Western societies were increasingly making claims for public acknowledgment of their particular identities, be this on the basis of gender, race, or ethnicity.

Gabriel Abraham Almond: …The Appeals of Communism (1954), The Politics of the Developing Areas (1960; written with others and edited by Almond), Political Development (1970), and Plutocracy and Politics in New York City (1998). He also wrote, with others, Comparative Politics: System, Process, Policy (1978), The Civic Culture Revisited (1980), Progress and Its…

Joan Wallach Scott: In The Politics of the Veil (2007), for example, she examined the ban imposed in 2004 on the wearing of the Islamic veil (and, officially, all conspicuous signs of religious affiliation) in French schools. She addressed that controversial topic by examining the fraught relationship between the…

Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, 1st Baron Hankey: In his Politics, Trials and Errors (1949) he opposed the war-crimes trials after World War II, especially those in Tokyo.

Harold Lasswell: In Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (1936)—a work whose title later served as the standard lay definition of politics—he viewed the elite as the primary holders of power, but in Power and Society: A Framework for Political Inquiry (1950), written with Abraham Kaplan, the discussion…