Nickelodeon, American-based cable television channel, focused on children’s programming. It is among the top-rated networks in the history of cable television. The channel launched as Pinwheel on December 1, 1977, originally airing educational fare from around the world for 12 hours a day, without

garnet: Origin and occurrence: Pinwheel garnet and snowball garnet are designations sometimes applied to those garnets whose inclusions appear to have been rotated. These garnets occur sporadically in foliated metamorphic rocks. Although their presence in diverse rocks has been interpreted variously, present-day consensus appears to be that they represent…

pinworm, worm belonging to the family Oxyuridae in the order Ascaridida (phylum Nematoda). Pinworms are common human intestinal parasites, especially in children. They are also found in other vertebrates. Male pinworms are 2 to 5 mm (about 0.08 to 0.2 inch) long; females range in length from 8 to

azalea: Major species: 5 feet) high; and the pinxter flower (R. periclymenoides), a shrub 1 to 2 metres (3 to 6.5 feet) high, with pink to whitish flowers. Hundreds of horticultural forms have been bred, including the molle azalea (R. molle), the Yodogawa azalea (R. yedoense), and the torch azalea (R. kaempferi).

Pinxton porcelain, English porcelain produced in Derbyshire from 1796 to 1813. The factory was established by John Coke, who had lived in Dresden, Saxony, with the help of William Billingsley, who had worked as a painter at Derby. Billingsley remained at Pinxton until 1799, concentrating on the

Pinyin romanization, system of romanization for the Chinese written language based on the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Chinese. The gradual acceptance of Pinyin as the official transcription used in the People’s Republic of China signaled a commitment to promote the use of the

Pinyin romanization, system of romanization for the Chinese written language based on the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Chinese. The gradual acceptance of Pinyin as the official transcription used in the People’s Republic of China signaled a commitment to promote the use of the

pine nut, edible seed of a pine (genus Pinus). Pine nuts, small, creamy, ivory-coloured seeds—sometimes known as pine kernels and also sold as pignoli, pinyons, or piñons—have been appreciated for their exquisite flavour since prehistoric times. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew and loved pine

pine: Major North American pines: Nut pine, or pinyon pine (P. edulis), is the most widely distributed tree of this nut group. The seeds of the group are large and tasty and are sold in markets as pine nuts.

Ezio Pinza was an Italian-born operatic bass and actor. Pinza studied civil engineering before turning, at his father’s urging, to singing. At 18 he sang Oroveso in Vincenzo Bellini’s Norma at Cremona. His vocal studies at the Conservatory of Bologna were interrupted by army service during World

Ezio Pinza was an Italian-born operatic bass and actor. Pinza studied civil engineering before turning, at his father’s urging, to singing. At 18 he sang Oroveso in Vincenzo Bellini’s Norma at Cremona. His vocal studies at the Conservatory of Bologna were interrupted by army service during World

Pinzón Island, one of the Galápagos Islands, in the eastern Pacific Ocean, about 600 miles (965 km) west of Ecuador. It has an area of about 7 square miles (18 square km) and is flanked on the west by five small islets known as Guy Fawkes Island. The island’s relief is made up of cactus-studded

Martín Alonso Pinzón and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón were brothers from a family of Spanish shipowners and navigators who took part in Christopher Columbus’s first voyage to America. Martín, part owner of the Pinta and Niña, helped prepare them, procured crews for the expedition of 1492, and commanded the

Padre Pio ; canonized June 16, 2002; feast day September 23) was an Italian priest and saint of the Roman Catholic Church. Born into a devout Roman Catholic family, he consecrated himself to Jesus at age 5. At age 15 he joined the Capuchin order and took the name Pio in honour of St. Pius I. In

Padre Pio ; canonized June 16, 2002; feast day September 23) was an Italian priest and saint of the Roman Catholic Church. Born into a devout Roman Catholic family, he consecrated himself to Jesus at age 5. At age 15 he joined the Capuchin order and took the name Pio in honour of St. Pius I. In

Vatican Museums and Galleries: The Pio-Clementino Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino or Musei di Scultura) was founded in the 18th century by Pope Clement XIV and enlarged by Pope Pius VI. It exhibits the pontifical collection of ancient sculpture that originated with the collection of Pope Julius II. The Chiaramonti Sculpture Gallery…

Celtic literature: The 17th century: …MacKinnon (Lachlann Mac Thearlaich Oig); John Mackay (Am Pìobaire Dall), whose Coire an Easa (“The Waterfall Corrie”) was significant in the development of Gaelic nature poetry; John Macdonald (Iain Dubh Mac Iain ’Ic Ailein), who wrote popular jingles; and John Maclean (Iain Mac Ailein), who showed an interest in early…

diabetes mellitus: Drugs used to control blood glucose levels: such as rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, act by reducing insulin resistance of muscle and adipose cells and by increasing glucose transport into these tissues. These agents can cause edema (fluid accumulation in tissues), liver toxicity, and adverse cardiovascular events in certain patients. Furthermore, oral hypoglycemic agents lower mean blood glucose…

mechanics of solids: Finite elastic deformations: Piola-Kirchhoff stress and is given by Skl = ρ0∂f([EM],θ)/∂E M kl , it being assumed that f has been written so as to have identical dependence on E M kl and E M lk .

Piombino, town, Tuscany regione, west-central Italy. It lies at the tip of the Piombino Promontory below Mount Massoncello, on the coast opposite the island of Elba. Once a possession of the archbishops of Pisa, it was declared a princedom in 1594 and was variously owned or occupied before becoming

annihilation: in turn, form mesons—including pi-mesons and K-mesons—which are classified within the hadron group of subatomic particles. Other annihilation reactions also occur. Nucleons (protons and neutrons), for example, annihilate antinucleons (antiprotons and antineutrons), and the energy is also carried away in the form of particles such as pi-mesons and K-mesons

submarine: American Civil War and after: …of a Confederate submarine named Pioneer, a craft that was 34 feet long and was driven by a hand-cranked propeller operated by three men. It probably was scuttled to prevent its capture when Union forces occupied New Orleans (although some records say the Pioneer was lost with all those aboard…

Pioneer, any of the first series of unmanned U.S. space probes designed chiefly for interplanetary study. Whereas the first five Pioneers (0–4, launched from 1958 to 1959) were intended to explore the vicinity of the Moon, all other probes in the series were sent to investigate planetary bodies or

myth: Political and social uses of myth: …are myths about the early pioneers in the American Wild West, as retold in countless motion pictures. Such stories often reinforce stereotypical attitudes about the supposed moral superiority of the settlers to Native Americans, although sometimes such attitudes are called into question in other movies that attempt to demythologize the…

George M. Pullman: Early life and career: …real (unconverted) Pullman car—the “Pioneer,” invented jointly with Field—appeared in 1865. It contained folding upper berths and seat cushions that could be extended to make lower berths. Although expensive, the cars garnered national attention, especially after Pullman managed to have several of them included in the train that bore…

Rhinelander: The Pioneer Park Historical Complex is home to several attractions, including museums, a replica of a lumber camp, and the “Five Spot,” the last narrow-gauge locomotive (1925) to work Wisconsin’s North Woods. The complex also houses a replica of a “hodag,” a grotesque animal once said…

Vance Palmer: …a writer), helped organize the Pioneer Players, a theatrical company in Melbourne specializing in Australian drama.

pioneer species, species that are the first to colonize newly created environments or recently disturbed environments during the processes of primary succession and secondary succession, respectively. Pioneer species—which include lichens, mosses, fungi, and microorganisms such as

Seattle: City layout: …from its historic center of Pioneer Square, the city’s oldest neighborhood and a federally designated historic district. The area’s redbrick townhouses, once residential, now house art galleries, restaurants, bookshops, and small businesses of many kinds. Pioneer Square is bounded by “Skid Road,” or Yesler Way, where, in the early years…

Minden: Minden is mainly known for Pioneer Village (founded 1953), one of the state’s top tourist attractions. Buildings representing American pioneer life are chronologically arranged and include a sod house, a pioneer school, a general store, and an original Pony Express station. It also has a large collection of antique vehicles…

Ponca City: Its Pioneer Woman bronze statue, honouring the courage of the women who helped settle the West, is at the Pioneer Woman Museum (1958). Kaw Lake, immediately northeast, is a major reservoir on the Arkansas River. The 55-room Marland Mansion, built in 1928 by oilman, congressman, and…

Pioneers, former Soviet organization for youth aged 9 to 14, closely associated with the Komsomol (q.v.) for youth aged 14 to

Francis Parkman: Literary career.: …of illness to complete his Pioneers of France in the New World (1865), a vivid account of French penetration of the North American wilderness that created a setting for his later volumes. In the 27 years following the Civil War, Parkman (who had to content himself with writing militant, patriotic…

The Pioneers, the first of five novels in the series The Leatherstocking Tales by James Fenimore Cooper, first published in two volumes in 1823. It began the saga of frontiersman Natty Bumppo, also called Leather-Stocking. In this narrative, however, Bumppo is an old man, as is his Indian friend

David McCullough: …The Wright Brothers (2015), and The Pioneers: The Heroic Story of the Settlers Who Brought the American Ideal West (2019). The American Spirit: Who We Are and What We Stand For (2017) is a collection of McCullough’s speeches.

The Pioneers, the first of five novels in the series The Leatherstocking Tales by James Fenimore Cooper, first published in two volumes in 1823. It began the saga of frontiersman Natty Bumppo, also called Leather-Stocking. In this narrative, however, Bumppo is an old man, as is his Indian friend

Pioneers, former Soviet organization for youth aged 9 to 14, closely associated with the Komsomol (q.v.) for youth aged 14 to

casu marzu: …a cheese fly known as Piophila casei are introduced to the cheese. The grubs are allowed to grow inside the cheese paste to encourage an advanced level of fermentation, one that most people would describe as decomposition. The developing grubs produce a spicy cream inside the cheese with a very…

skipper, (family Piophilidae), any member of a family of insects in the fly order, Diptera, in which the larvae are known for jumping or skipping when alarmed. The family name means “fat-loving,” and many species breed in fatty materials such as cheese and meat, where they can become serious pests.

Peter Piot is a Belgian microbiologist who served as executive director of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), and under-secretary-general of the United Nations (1995–2008), best known for his coordination of global efforts to control the spread of HIV/AIDS. Piot also

Peter Piot is a Belgian microbiologist who served as executive director of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), and under-secretary-general of the United Nations (1995–2008), best known for his coordination of global efforts to control the spread of HIV/AIDS. Piot also

Piotrków Trybunalski, city, Łodzkie województwo (province), central Poland. It is a manufacturing centre containing textile (principally cotton) mills, woodworks, and glassworks and lies on the Warsaw-Katowice rail line. First chronicled in the 13th century, Piotrków Trybunalski obtained town

Pietism: …famous work, Pia Desideria (1675; Pious Desires), Spener assessed contemporary orthodoxy’s weaknesses and advanced proposals for reform. His proposals included greater private and public use of the Scriptures, greater assumption by the laity of their priestly responsibilities as believers, greater efforts to bear the practical fruits of a living faith,…

Pietism: …famous work, Pia Desideria (1675; Pious Desires), Spener assessed contemporary orthodoxy’s weaknesses and advanced proposals for reform. His proposals included greater private and public use of the Scriptures, greater assumption by the laity of their priestly responsibilities as believers, greater efforts to bear the practical fruits of a living faith,…

Hester Lynch Piozzi was an English writer and friend of Samuel Johnson. In 1763 she married a wealthy brewer named Henry Thrale. In January 1765 Samuel Johnson was brought to dinner, and the next year, following a severe illness, Johnson spent most of the summer in the country with the Thrales.

Pip, fictional character, the young orphan whose growth and development are the subject of Charles Dickens’s novel Great Expectations

hammertoe: …at the middle joint (the proximal interphalangeal [PIP] joint), such that the overall shape of the toe resembles a hammer. Most cases of hammertoe involve the second toe, and often only one or two toes are affected. In rare cases when all the toes are involved, a thorough neurological assessment…

pipa, short-necked Chinese lute prominent in Chinese opera orchestras and as a solo instrument. It has a shallow, pear-shaped body with a wooden belly and, sometimes, two crescent-shaped sound holes. The modern pipa has 29 or 31 frets, 6 on the neck and the rest on the body of the instrument. The

Gao Ming: …playwright whose sole surviving opera, Pipaji (The Lute), became the model for drama of the Ming dynasty.

Surinam toad, (Pipa pipa), aquatic South American toad (family Pipidae) in which the eggs are incubated on the back of the female. The Surinam toad is about 10 to 17 cm (4 to 7 inches) long. It has a flat, squarish body, small eyes, and a flat head with loose flaps of skin on the snout and jaws.

Gao Ming: …playwright whose sole surviving opera, Pipaji (The Lute), became the model for drama of the Ming dynasty.

Ficus: Major species: The Bo tree, or pipal (F. religiosa), is sacred in India because of its association with the Buddha. Another notable Ficus species is the sycamore fig (F. sycomorus), which has mulberry-like leaves, hard wood, and edible fruit.

Ficus: Major species: The Bo tree, or pipal (F. religiosa), is sacred in India because of its association with the Buddha. Another notable Ficus species is the sycamore fig (F. sycomorus), which has mulberry-like leaves, hard wood, and edible fruit.

pipe, hollow bowl used for smoking tobacco; it is equipped with a hollow stem through which smoke is drawn into the mouth. The bowl can be made of such materials as clay, corncob, meerschaum (a mineral composed of magnesia, silica, and water), and most importantly, briar-wood, the root of a species

keyboard instrument: Parts, mechanism, and production of sound: The proper placement of an organ is acoustically crucial, and for most organ music a resonant room with three seconds or more of reverberation time is desirable. Organs having pipes that are installed in deep chambers adjoining the room occupied by the listeners, or placed in an acoustically “dead” environment,…

construction: Building support systems: …use of lead was for pipes to supply fresh water to buildings and to remove wastewater from them (the word plumbing comes from the Latin plumbum, which means lead). The Romans provided generous water supplies for their cities; all of the supply systems worked by gravity and many of them…

pipe, in music, specifically, the three-holed flute played with a tabor drum (see pipe and tabor); generically, any aerophonic (wind) instruments consisting of pipes, either flutes or reed pipes (as a clarinet), and also the reed and flue pipes of organs. A pipe’s pitch depends on its length, a

pipe and tabor, three-holed fipple, or whistle, flute played along with a small snare drum. The player holds the pipe with his left hand, stopping the holes with the thumb and the first and second fingers; the other two fingers support the instrument. A scale is obtained by overblowing, using the

tunnels and underground excavations: Pipe jacking: For small tunnels in a five- to eight-foot size range, small moles of the open-face-wheel type have been effectively combined with an older technique known as pipe jacking, in which a final lining of precast concrete pipe is jacked forward in sections. The…

Frederick Shepherd Converse: His opera, The Pipe of Desire (1906), in 1910 became the first opera by an American composer to be staged by the Metropolitan Opera Company, New York. Although his early works were conservative, he adopted a somewhat modern idiom in the symphonic fantasy Flivver Ten Million (1927),…

organ, in music, a keyboard instrument, operated by the player’s hands and feet, in which pressurized air produces notes through a series of pipes organized in scalelike rows. The term organ encompasses reed organs and electronic organs but, unless otherwise specified, is usually understood to

Pipe Rolls, the oldest and longest series of English public records and a valuable source for the financial and administrative history of medieval England. Apart from an isolated survival from 1130, they begin in 1156 and continue with few breaks until 1832. Their name probably derives from the

pipe snake, any primitive burrowing snake characterized by remnants of a pelvic girdle and belonging to the genera Cylindrophis, Anilius, or Anomochilus. Each genus represents a distinct family: the Cylindrophiidae, Aniliidae, and Anomochilidae, respectively. All are small to moderately sized

Pipe Spring National Monument, historic site on the Kaibab Paiute Indian reservation, northern Arizona, U.S. It was established in 1923 and covers 40 acres (16 hectares). Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi) and, later, Kaibab Paiute peoples lived in the region, sustained by water from the spring. Mormon

Dutchman’s-pipe, (Aristolochia durior), climbing vine of the birthwort family (Aristolochiaceae), native to central and eastern North America. The heart-shaped or kidney-shaped leaves are about 15 to 35 cm (about 6 to 14 inches) wide. The yellowish brown or purplish brown tubular flowers resemble a

wrench: The adjustable pipe, or Stillson, wrench is used to hold or turn pipes or circular bars. This wrench has serrated jaws, one of which is pivoted on the handle to create a strong gripping action on the work.

Sacred Pipe, one of the central ceremonial objects of the Northeast Indians and Plains Indians of North America, it was an object of profound veneration that was smoked on ceremonial occasions. Many Native Americans continued to venerate the Sacred Pipe in the early 21st century. The Sacred Pipe

pipefish, any of about 200 species in 51 genera of elongated fishes allied to the sea horses in the family Syngnathidae (order Gasterosteiformes). Pipefishes are very slender, long-bodied fishes that are covered with rings of bony armour. They have long tubular snouts and small mouths, a single

computer: Central processing unit: One is the pipeline, which allows the fetch-decode-execute cycle to have several instructions under way at once. While one instruction is being executed, another can obtain its operands, a third can be decoded, and a fourth can be fetched from memory. If each of these operations requires the…

surf music: …among them the Chantays (“Pipeline”), the Ventures (“Walk—Don’t Run”), and the Surfaris (whose “Wipe Out” featured the most identifiable drum solo in rock history). Surfing culture also flourished on the beaches of Australia, giving rise not only to an Australian version of surf music but also to the stomp,…

pipeline, line of pipe equipped with pumps and valves and other control devices for moving liquids, gases, and slurries (fine particles suspended in liquid). Pipeline sizes vary from the 2-inch- (5-centimetre-) diameter lines used in oil-well gathering systems to lines 30 feet (9 metres) across in

computer graphics: Processors and programs: Another technique, pipelined parallelism, takes advantage of the fact that graphics processing can be broken into stages—constructing polygons or Bezier surfaces, eliminating hidden surfaces, shading, rasterization, and so on. Using pipelined parallelism, as one image is being rasterized, another can be shaded, and a third can be…

numerical analysis: Effects of computer hardware: …topic is that of “pipelining.” This is a widely used technique whereby the executions of computer operations are overlapped, leading to faster execution. Machines with the same basic clock speed can have very different program execution times due to differences in pipelining and differences in the way memory is…

Piperaceae: …5 genera, of which 2—Piper (about 2,000 species) and Peperomia (about 1,600 species)—are the most important. The plants grow as herbs, vines, shrubs, and trees and are widely distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics.

history of flight: General aviation: … still used radial-piston engines, but Piper relied on a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine that allowed engineers to design a more streamlined engine nacelle. This type of engine became the preferred style for modern light-plane designs.

conflict of laws: Rationale behind choice of jurisdiction: This occurred in Piper Aircraft v. Reyno, a suit filed in the United States on behalf of Scottish parties whose relatives were killed in an airplane crash. The flight originated in Scotland and was scheduled to end there; the aircraft was owned by a British entity; the pilot…

Piper Alpha disaster, explosion and sinking of the Piper Alpha oil platform in the North Sea on July 6, 1988. The disaster killed 167 people. The discovery of North Sea oil and gas was a boon to Great Britain. Piper Alpha, operated by Occidental Petroleum, made a productive contribution. Originally

Pink Floyd: Formation and debut album: …followed by their debut album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, a lush, experimental record that has since become a rock classic. Their sound was becoming increasingly adventurous, incorporating sound effects, spacy guitar and keyboards, and extended improvisation such as “Interstellar Overdrive.”

palm: Economic importance: …of the betel pepper (Piper betle), as a chewing substance. Trunks and leaves serve in local construction, in the making of weapons, and as sources of wax (the wax palm, Ceroxylon; the carnauba wax palm). Leaves of the gebang palm are made into umbrellas and books; others provide material…

William T. Piper: …aircraft, best known for the Piper Cub, a two-seater that became the most popular family aircraft. He earned the sobriquet “the Henry Ford of Aviation” for his efforts to popularize air travel.

Piperaceae: P. cubeba, of particular importance in Southeast Asia, is the source of cubeb, used in various medicines and for flavouring cigarettes and bitters. In the Orient, chewing the leaves of the betel pepper, P. betle, with slices of betel nut (Areca catechu) and lime, is…

kava: …of the pepper plant, principally Piper methysticum, in most of the South Pacific islands. It is yellow-green in colour and somewhat bitter. The primary active ingredients of kava are known as kavalactones; other substances, including alkaloids, are also present and likely account for some of the beverage’s side effects. The…

black pepper, (Piper nigrum), perennial climbing vine of the family Piperaceae and the hotly pungent spice made from its fruits. Black pepper is native to the Malabar Coast of India and is one of the earliest spices known. Widely used as a spice around the world, pepper also has a limited usage in

Adrian Piper is an American conceptual and performance artist known for her provocative works that treat race, gender, class, and identity. Piper studied art at the Art Students League of New York while she was in high school. She then studied sculpture and painting at the School of Visual Arts in

Adrian Piper is an American conceptual and performance artist known for her provocative works that treat race, gender, class, and identity. Piper studied art at the Art Students League of New York while she was in high school. She then studied sculpture and painting at the School of Visual Arts in

Carl, Count Piper was a Swedish statesman who served as King Charles XII’s leading minister during the Great Northern War (1700–21). Piper was of lesser noble background. He became an official in the Swedish chancellery’s department of home affairs under King Charles XI but reached the heights of

Josephine Preston Peabody: …for children, and in 1909 The Piper, a verse drama on the Pied Piper legend, which won the Stratford Prize Competition and was produced at theatres in London and New York City. The Singing Man, a collection of poems exhibiting Peabody’s growing concern with social injustice, appeared in 1911. Her…

William T. Piper was an American manufacturer of small aircraft, best known for the Piper Cub, a two-seater that became the most popular family aircraft. He earned the sobriquet “the Henry Ford of Aviation” for his efforts to popularize air travel. Piper graduated from Harvard University in 1903

William T. Piper was an American manufacturer of small aircraft, best known for the Piper Cub, a two-seater that became the most popular family aircraft. He earned the sobriquet “the Henry Ford of Aviation” for his efforts to popularize air travel. Piper graduated from Harvard University in 1903

Piperaceae, the pepper family in the order Piperales, commercially important because of Piper nigrum, the source of black and white pepper. The family comprises about 5 genera, of which 2—Piper (about 2,000 species) and Peperomia (about 1,600 species)—are the most important. The plants grow as

Piperales, order of flowering plants comprising 3 families, 17 genera, and 4,170 species. Along with the orders Laurales, Magnoliales, and Canellales, Piperales forms the magnoliid clade, which is an early evolutionary branch in the angiosperm tree; the clade corresponds to part of the subclass

piperazine, anthelmintic drug used in the treatment of intestinal roundworm infection in humans and domestic animals (including poultry) and against pinworm infection in humans. It is administered orally, in repeated doses, usually as the citrate salt. Its action causes worms to be paralyzed and

piperine, an organic compound classed either with the lipid family (a group consisting of fats and fatlike substances) or with the alkaloids, a family of nitrogenous compounds with marked physiological properties. It is one of the sharp-tasting constituents of the fruit of the pepper vine (Piper

Pipestone, city, seat of Pipestone county, southwestern Minnesota, U.S. It lies on the Coteau des Prairies, near the South Dakota state line, about 40 miles (65 km) northeast of Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Settlers were attracted to the Pipestone area by Native American legends of a quarry where red

Pipestone National Monument: …1937 to protect the local pipestone (catlinite) quarries, which were the source of the relatively soft red stone used by the Plains Indians to make pipes for smoking on ceremonial occasions. The monument occupies 282 acres (114 hectares).

Pipestone National Monument, quarry, southwestern Minnesota, U.S. The monument is located just northwest of the city of Pipestone, near the South Dakota border. It was created in 1937 to protect the local pipestone (catlinite) quarries, which were the source of the relatively soft red stone used by

lepidopteran: Protection against danger: …it coexists with the distasteful pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor), which is also black. However, where B. philenor does not occur, P. glaucus females tend to be all nonmimetic yellow forms like the males because, without the black models, black has no protective significance. Some very striking mimetic polymorphisms occur among…

frog and toad: Annotated classification: Family Pipidae (tongueless frogs) Cretaceous (145.5 million–65.5 million years ago) to present; 6 to 8 presacral vertebrae; ribs present and free in larvae, but fused to transverse processes of vertebrae in adults; coccyx fused to sacrum or free and monocondylar (i.e., with 1 articulation); tongue absent;…

Central America: Pre-Columbian Central America: …coast, notable especially among the Pipil of El Salvador and the Chorotega and Nicarao of Nicaragua. In Panama and Costa Rica, South American Chibcha influence was prevalent, while Caribbean cultural patterns penetrated the coastal plain from Panama to Honduras. Fugitives from the European conquistadores in the Caribbean increased this influence…

Mesoamerican Indian languages: The classification and status of Mesoamerican languages: In addition to these languages, there is a very long list of names identified in colonial and other early sources that are generally thought to represent extinct Uto-Aztecan groups, most in northern Mexico. No information has survived on most of these,…