Balthasar Neumann was a German architect who was the foremost master of the late Baroque style. Neumann was apprenticed to a bell-founder and in 1711 emigrated to Würzburg, where he gained the patronage of that city’s ruling prince-bishop, a member of the Schönborn family, after working on military

Max Horkheimer: Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979), and Franz Neumann (1900–54)—who (along with Horkheimer) came to be known collectively as the Frankfurt School. Horkheimer also served as editor of the institute’s literary organ, Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung (“Journal for Social Research”), which published pathbreaking studies in political philosophy and cultural analysis from 1932 to…

Franz Ernst Neumann was a German mineralogist, physicist, and mathematician who devised the first mathematical theory of electrical induction, the process of converting mechanical energy to electrical energy. Neumann’s early work in crystallography gained him a reputation that led to his

John von Neumann was a Hungarian-born American mathematician. As an adult, he appended von to his surname; the hereditary title had been granted his father in 1913. Von Neumann grew from child prodigy to one of the world’s foremost mathematicians by his mid-twenties. Important work in set theory

Balthasar Neumann was a German architect who was the foremost master of the late Baroque style. Neumann was apprenticed to a bell-founder and in 1711 emigrated to Würzburg, where he gained the patronage of that city’s ruling prince-bishop, a member of the Schönborn family, after working on military

The Fly: Production notes and credits:

Lisel Mueller was a German-born American poet known for her warm introspective poetry. She was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1997 for her volume Alive Together: New and Selected Poems. Mueller fled Nazi Germany for the United States with her mother and sister in 1939. Her father, Fritz

St. John Neumann ; canonized 1977; feast day January 5) was the bishop of Philadelphia and a leader in the Roman Catholic parochial school system in the United States. After studies at the University of Prague, Neumann’s interest in missions in the United States took him to New York, where he was

St. John Neumann ; canonized 1977; feast day January 5) was the bishop of Philadelphia and a leader in the Roman Catholic parochial school system in the United States. After studies at the University of Prague, Neumann’s interest in missions in the United States took him to New York, where he was

Therese Neumann was a German stigmatic. At the age of 20 Neumann underwent a severe nervous shock after the outbreak of a fire and later suffered from hysterical paralysis, blindness, and gastric troubles for several years. In 1926 a blood-coloured serum began to ooze from her eyes, and during Lent

set theory: The Neumann-Bernays-Gödel axioms: The second axiomatization of set theory (see the Neumann-Bernays-Gödel axiomsNeumann-Bernays-Gödel axioms.

Târgu Mureş, city, capital of Mureş judeƫ (county), north-central Romania. It lies in the valley of the Mureş River, in the southeastern part of the Transylvanian Basin. First mentioned in the early 14th century, it was a cattle and crop market town called Agropolis by Greek traders. In the 15th

neume, in musical notation, a sign for one or a group of successive musical pitches, predecessor of modern musical notes. Neumes have been used in Christian (e.g., Gregorian, Byzantine) liturgical chant as well as in the earliest medieval polyphony (music in several voices, or parts) and some

John Neumeier is an American ballet dancer, choreographer, and director who choreographed and directed some 120 ballets over the course of his career. Neumeier studied dance in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Chicago. During and after the completion of his academic studies at Marquette University (B.A.,

cantata: Lutheran ministers, notably Erdmann Neumeister, encouraged the absorption of secular music into the church service. They provided German Protestant composers with cycles of texts for sacred cantatas based on the operatic aria form. Previously, Lutheran church music had been based largely on 12th-century music with biblical texts. With…

Western painting: Germany: …contribution was as a theorist; Neun Briefe über Landschaftsmalerei (1831; “Nine Letters on Landscape Painting”) elucidates and expands the ideas of Friedrich, adding Carus’ own more-scientific approach to natural phenomena. Other important painters influenced by Friedrich were Ernst Ferdinand Oehme, a landscape painter, and Georg Friedrich Kersting, who captured in…

Bernhard Kellermann: November (1921; The Ninth of November), inspired by revolutionary activity in Germany in 1918; Das blaue Band (1938; “The Blue Band”), based on the sinking of the ocean liner Titanic; and Totentanz (1948; “Dance of Death”).

Volker Schlöndorff: …and Der neunte Tag (2004; The Ninth Day), the chilling tale of a priest’s time in a Nazi concentration camp. Schlöndorff’s subsequent films included Strajk (2006; Strike), about one of the founders of Poland’s Solidarity trade union, and the romantic drama Return to Montauk (2017).

Samson Raphael Hirsch: …Neunzehn Briefe über Judenthum (1836; Nineteen Letters of Ben Uziel), in which he expounded Neo-Orthodoxy. This system required two chief courses of action: (1) an educational program that combined strict training in the Torah (Jewish Law) with a modern secular education—so that Orthodoxy could withstand the challenge of Reform Judaism,…

Neuquén, city, capital of Neuquén provincia (province), west-central Argentina. It is located at the confluence of the Neuquén and Limay rivers, which there form the Negro River. Founded in 1904, the city is a market centre for the adjacent fruit-growing area, which became more productive from the

Neuquén, provincia (province), west-central Argentina. It is bordered by the high peaks of the Andes Mountains and by Chile (west), the Colorado River and tributaries (north), and the Limay River (south). The city of Neuquén, the provincial capital, is at the confluence of the Neuquén and Limay

Patagonia: Resource exploitation: …have been constructed on the Neuquén and Limay rivers in order to exploit the hydroelectric potential of the western portion of Patagonia. These projects also have created large reservoirs that have made extensive irrigated agriculture possible in the Negro River region. Among the major crops grown are peaches, plums, almonds,…

Malvales: Neuradaceae, Thymelaeaceae, and Sphaerosepalaceae: Neuradaceae is a small family of annual, or rarely perennial, herbs. It includes 3 genera and 10 species, which grow from Africa to India in desert areas. Grielum (5 species) is the largest genus, with all of its plants native to…

vertebral column: …centrum, surmounted by a Y-shaped neural arch. The arch extends a spinous process (projection) downward and backward that may be felt as a series of bumps down the back, and two transverse processes, one to either side, which provide attachment for muscles and ligaments. Together the centrum and neural arch…

neural crest, group of embryonic cells that are pinched off during the formation of the neural tube (the precursor of the spinal cord) but that do not remain as a part of the central nervous system. The cells of the neural crest migrate to numerous locations in the body and contribute to the

neural engineering, in biomedicine, discipline in which engineering technologies and mathematical and computational methods are combined with techniques in neuroscience and biology. Objectives of neural engineering include the enhancement of understanding of the functions of the human nervous

prenatal development: Development between the second and fourth weeks: …definite gutterlike formation called the neural groove, which is the first indication of the future central nervous system. Beneath the groove, the mesodermal head process presently rounds into an axial rod, the notochord, that serves as a temporary “backbone.” By the end of the third week, a head fold, paired…

neural network, a computer program that operates in a manner inspired by the natural neural network in the brain. The objective of such artificial neural networks is to perform such cognitive functions as problem solving and machine learning. The theoretical basis of neural networks was developed

neural network, a computer program that operates in a manner inspired by the natural neural network in the brain. The objective of such artificial neural networks is to perform such cognitive functions as problem solving and machine learning. The theoretical basis of neural networks was developed

neuroplasticity: capacity of neurons and neural networks in the brain to change their connections and behaviour in response to new information, sensory stimulation, development, damage, or dysfunction. Although some neural functions appear to be hard-wired in specific, localized regions of the brain, certain neural networks exhibit modularity and carry out…

neural oscillation, synchronized rhythmic patterns of electrical activity produced by neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and autonomic nervous system. Oscillations, in general, are a reflection of a balanced interaction between two or more forces. In the brain, they typically reflect competition

animal development: Differentiation of the germinal layers: …layer thickens and becomes the neural plate, whose edges rise as neural folds that converge toward the midline, fuse together, and form the neural tube. In vertebrates the neural tube lies immediately above the notochord and extends beyond its anterior tip. The neural tube is the rudiment of the brain…

receptor, molecule, generally a protein, that receives signals for a cell. Small molecules, such as hormones outside the cell or second messengers inside the cell, bind tightly and specifically to their receptors. Binding is a critical element in effecting a cellular response to a signal and is

neural stem cell, largely undifferentiated cell originating in the central nervous system. Neural stem cells (NSCs) have the potential to give rise to offspring cells that grow and differentiate into neurons and glial cells (non-neuronal cells that insulate neurons and enhance the speed at which

hallucination: The nature of hallucinations: …that have variously been called neural traces, templates, or engrams. Ideas and images are held to derive from the incorporation and activation of these engrams in complex circuits involving nerve cells. Such circuits in the cortex (outer layers) of the brain appear to subserve the neurophysiology of memory,

cephalic disorder: Anencephaly: …the upper region of the neural tube to close in early embryonic development, specifically within the first month of pregnancy. (The neural tube is the primitive structure from which develops the central nervous system.) Females are more likely to be affected than males. Insufficient maternal intake of folic acid is…

neural tube defect, any congenital defect of the brain and spinal cord as a result of abnormal development of the neural tube (the precursor of the spinal cord) during early embryonic life, usually accompanied by defects of the vertebral column or skull. In normal development a plaque of nerve

neuralgia, cyclic attacks of acute pain occurring in a peripheral sensory nerve; the cause of the pain is unknown, and pathological changes in nerve tissue cannot be found. There are two principal types of neuralgia: trigeminal neuralgia and glossopharyngeal neuralgia. Trigeminal neuralgia (tic

neuraminidase, any of a group of enzymes that cleave sialic acid, a carbohydrate occurring on the surfaces of cells in humans and other animals and in plants and microorganisms. In the 1940s American scientist George Hirst identified in samples of influenza virus mixed with red blood cells

antiviral drug: Anti-influenza drugs: These drugs are inhibitors of neuraminidase, a glycoprotein on the surface of the influenza virus. Inhibition of neuraminidase activity decreases the release of virus from infected cells, increases the formation of viral aggregates, and decreases the spread of the virus through the body. If taken within 30 hours…

neurasthenia, a syndrome marked by physical and mental fatigue accompanied by withdrawal and

Konstantin, baron von Neurath was a German diplomat who was Adolf Hitler’s foreign minister from 1933 to 1938. After studying law at the Universities of Tübingen and Berlin, Neurath entered the German foreign service in 1903. After World War I he served as minister to Denmark (from 1919),

Otto Neurath was an Austrian philosopher and sociologist noted for interpreting logical-positivist thought as a basis for behaviourist social and economic theory. After imprisonment for being associated with the short-lived Bavarian Communist republic in 1919, Neurath went to Vienna (1920) to

Rosi Mittermaier was a German Alpine skier who won two gold medals and one silver medal at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. Her performance was, at that time, the best ever by a woman Alpine skier at the Olympics. Mittermaier first showed promise of being a world-class skier as a

Schwann cell, any of the cells in the peripheral nervous system that produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. Schwann cells are named after German physiologist Theodor Schwann, who discovered them in the 19th century. These cells are equivalent to a type of neuroglia called

bionics: …a semiconductor device called a neuristor was devised, capable of propagating a signal in one direction without attenuation and able to perform numerical and logical operations. The neuristor computer, inspired by a natural model, imitates the dynamic behaviour of natural neural information networks; each circuit can serve sequentially for different…

Alzheimer disease: Neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles: The presence of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain are used to diagnose Alzheimer disease in autopsy. Neuritic plaques—also called senile, dendritic, or amyloid plaques—consist of deteriorating neuronal material surrounding deposits of a sticky protein called amyloid beta

neuritis, inflammation of one or more nerves. Neuritis can be caused by injury, infection, or autoimmune disease. The characteristic symptoms include pain and tenderness, impaired sensation, often with numbness or hypersensitivity, impaired strength and reflexes, and abnormal circulation and

fuzzy logic: Nonengineering applications: So-called neuro-fuzzy systems integrate fuzzy logic and artificial neural networks, enabling a certain form of learning. Systems with neuro-fuzzy components may be found in fields such as stock market prediction, intelligent information systems, and data mining (see database).

defense mechanism: …in Sigmund Freud’s paper “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (1894).

hypothalamus: Hypothalamic regulation of hormone secretion: …an important group is the neuropeptides. The neuropeptides function not only as neurotransmitters but also as neuromodulators. As neuromodulators, they do not act directly as neurotransmitters but rather increase or decrease the action of neurotransmitters. Well-known examples are the opioids (e.g., enkephalins), so named because they are endogenous (produced in…

neurofeedback, form of therapy in which the brain’s electrical activity is assessed and measured to help correct dysfunctional or abnormal brain-wave patterns. Techniques used to detect electrical rhythms in the brain include electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging

emotion: The neurobiology of emotion: Before the advent of behaviourism, when the science of neurology was still in its infancy, the American philosopher and psychologist William James (1842–1910) brought some of the factors together in his theory of emotion, which he set out in his foundational study…

human nervous system: Morphological development: …cells differentiate and proliferate into neuroblasts, which are the precursors of neurons, and glioblasts, from which neuroglia develop. With a few exceptions, the neuroblasts, glioblasts, and their derived cells do not divide and multiply once they have migrated from the ventricular zone into the gray and white matter of the…

neuroblastoma, a tumour of the sympathetic nervous system (the branch of the autonomic nervous system that is best known for producing the fight-or-flight response) that affects young children. It is the most-common pediatric solid tumour that occurs outside the brain, with an annual incidence of

dystonia: , Botox™, Myobloc™, and NeuroBloc™). An injection of this potent blocker of nerve transmission produces a temporary chemical denervation of the muscles that may last for several months.

Heinrich Klüver: …later years Klüver turned to neurochemistry, particularly to the study of free porphyrins found in the brain. His work on the staining of nervous tissue was widely used by other investigators. He also wrote Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations (1966).

annelid: Nervous system: …has giant nerve fibres (neurochords), which may have either a simple or a compound structure. Simple neurochords are very large single nerve cells; their axons arise from cells situated in either the brain or a segmental ganglion. Compound neurochords are multiple structures; each axon is connected to numerous cell…

cardiovascular disease: Vasoconstriction: …people or in those with neurocirculatory asthenia (a symptom-complex in which there is breathlessness, giddiness, a sense of fatigue, pain in the chest over the heart, palpitation, and a fast and forcible heartbeat of which the affected person is conscious). Reassurance and avoidance of cold help to eliminate attacks.

information processing: Basic concepts: …contributed to the development of neurocomputers, a new class of parallel, distributed-information processors that mimic the functioning of the human brain, including its capabilities for self-organization and learning. So-called neural networks, which are mathematical models inspired by the neural circuit network of the human brain, are increasingly finding applications in…

skull, skeletal framework of the head of vertebrates, composed of bones or cartilage, which form a unit that protects the brain and some sense organs. The upper jaw, but not the lower, is part of the skull. The human cranium, the part that contains the brain, is globular and relatively large in

dermatitis: Types of dermatitis: Neurodermatitis refers to a skin inflammation that is apparently caused by the patient’s own repeated and chronic scratching of an itchy area of skin.

neurodiversity, in sociology and psychology, term to describe the natural variation in brain function and behaviour among humans. The term neurodiversity was coined by Australian sociologist Judy Singer to provide an alternative to language that describes neurodevelopmental conditions, such as

nervous system: Neuroactive peptides: Some peptides are secreted by neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. Because they are released into the capillary system of the bloodstream and act at distant sites of the body, these are called neurohormones. Other peptides are released into the synaptic cleft between neurons of the central nervous…

neural engineering, in biomedicine, discipline in which engineering technologies and mathematical and computational methods are combined with techniques in neuroscience and biology. Objectives of neural engineering include the enhancement of understanding of the functions of the human nervous

human nervous system: Neuronal development: …precursor cells, known as neuroepithelial cells, which develop into the neural tube (see below Morphological development). Neuroepithelial cells then commence to divide, diversify, and give rise to immature neurons and neuroglia, which in turn migrate from the neural tube to their final location. Each neuron forms dendrites and an axon;…

human nervous system: Neuronal development: …neural precursor cells, known as neuroepithelial cells, which develop into the neural tube (see below Morphological development). Neuroepithelial cells then commence to divide, diversify, and give rise to immature neurons and neuroglia, which in turn migrate from the neural tube to their final location. Each neuron forms dendrites and an…

neuroethics, the study of the ethical, legal, and social implications of neuroscience and neurotechnology, as well as the neurobiological basis of human ethical norms and individual moral values. Neuroethics is an independent and highly interdisciplinary field, overlapping with subject areas such

neurofeedback, form of therapy in which the brain’s electrical activity is assessed and measured to help correct dysfunctional or abnormal brain-wave patterns. Techniques used to detect electrical rhythms in the brain include electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging

Alzheimer disease: Neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles: The presence of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain are used to diagnose Alzheimer disease in autopsy. Neuritic plaques—also called senile, dendritic, or amyloid plaques—consist of deteriorating neuronal material surrounding deposits of a sticky protein called amyloid beta (or beta-amyloid). This…

neurofibromatosis, either of two hereditary disorders characterized by distinctive skin lesions and by benign, progressively enlarging tumours of the nervous system. Neurofibromatosis type 1, also known as von Recklinghausen’s disease, is much the more common of the two disorders and is present in

neurofibromatosis: Neurofibromatosis type 1, also known as von Recklinghausen’s disease, is much the more common of the two disorders and is present in about one of every 3,000 live births. This type is characterized by the presence of café-au-lait (pale brown) spots on the skin and…

neurofibromatosis: Neurofibromatosis type 2 is a much rarer inherited disease marked by tumours of the auditory canal in the ear and by small numbers of café-au-lait spots.

neuroplasticity: …as stroke recovery, natural adult neurogenesis can also play a role. As a result, neurogenesis has spurred an interest in stem cell research, which could lead to an enhancement of neurogenesis in adults who suffer from stroke, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, or depression. Research suggests that Alzheimer disease in particular…

neurogenic arthropathy, condition characterized by the destruction of a stress-bearing joint, with development of new bone around the joint. Eventually the affected individual is unable to use the joint but experiences little or no pain or discomfort. The condition accompanies damage to the nervous

circulatory system: Fluid compartments: …of other invertebrates exhibit this neurogenic contraction.

diagnosis: Emergency: …by reduced heart function, and neurogenic shock and septic shock are caused by malfunction of the vascular system. This malfunction, which can be caused by severe allergic reaction such as anaphylaxis or by drug overdose, results in severely reduced peripheral vascular tone, in vasodilation, and in pooling of the blood.…

stuttering: Neurogenic stuttering is defined by abnormalities in signaling between the brain and the nerve fibres and muscles controlling speech. This form of stuttering is associated with structural damage in the motor speech area of the brain. Damage to this area may occur as a result…

neuroglia, any of several types of cell that function primarily to support neurons. The term neuroglia means “nerve glue.” In 1907 Italian biologist Emilio Lugaro suggested that neuroglial cells exchange substances with the extracellular fluid and in this way exert control on the neuronal

neuroglia, any of several types of cell that function primarily to support neurons. The term neuroglia means “nerve glue.” In 1907 Italian biologist Emilio Lugaro suggested that neuroglial cells exchange substances with the extracellular fluid and in this way exert control on the neuronal

Morton Prince: …formulated concepts such as the neurogram, or neurological record of psychological behaviour, and the coconscious, a parallel, possibly rival, well-organized system of awareness comparable to the ordinary, familiar consciousness.

hormone: Relationships between endocrine and neural regulation: …bloodstream at special regions called neurohemal organs, where the axon endings are in close contact with blood capillaries. Once released in this way, neurohormones function in principle similar to hormones that are transmitted in the bloodstream and are synthesized in the endocrine glands.

neurohormone, any of a group of substances produced by specialized cells (neurosecretory cells) structurally typical of the nervous, rather than of the endocrine, system. The neurohormones pass along nerve-cell extensions (axons) and are released into the bloodstream at special regions called

neurohormone, any of a group of substances produced by specialized cells (neurosecretory cells) structurally typical of the nervous, rather than of the endocrine, system. The neurohormones pass along nerve-cell extensions (axons) and are released into the bloodstream at special regions called

hormone: Hormones of the pituitary gland: One is the neurohypophysis, which forms as a downgrowth of the floor of the brain and gives rise to the median eminence and the neural lobe; these structures are neurohemal organs. The other is the adenohypophysis, which develops as an upgrowth from the buccal cavity (mouth region) and…

Schwann cell, any of the cells in the peripheral nervous system that produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. Schwann cells are named after German physiologist Theodor Schwann, who discovered them in the 19th century. These cells are equivalent to a type of neuroglia called

antipsychotic drug, any agent used in the treatment of psychosis, a form of mental illness. Psychoses can affect cognitive processes such as judgment and frequently cause delusions and hallucinations. The most widely known psychosis is schizophrenia. Effective treatments for some forms of

neurolinguistics, the study of the neurological mechanisms underlying the storage and processing of language. Although it has been fairly satisfactorily determined that the language centre is in the left hemisphere of the brain in right-handed people, controversy remains concerning whether

music therapy: Approaches in music therapy: …choose to be trained in neurologic music therapy (NMT). Training in this approach focuses on understanding and applying scientific, evidence-based practices, usually for the purpose of neurorehabilitation (the recovery of neurologic function). Examples of techniques employed in this approach include auditory perception training, patterned sensory enhancement, and therapeutic singing, which…

Harvey Williams Cushing: …are still basic to the surgery of the brain, and his work greatly reduced the high mortality rates that had formerly been associated with brain surgery. He became the leading expert in the diagnosis and treatment of intracranial tumours. His research on the pituitary body (1912) gained him an international…

automata theory: The finite automata of McCulloch and Pitts: …is often based on a model of a portion of the nervous system in a living creature and on how that system with its complex of neurons, nerve endings, and synapses (separating gap between neurons) can generate, codify, store, and use information. The “all or none” nature of the threshold…

neurology, medical specialty concerned with the nervous system and its functional or organic disorders. Neurologists diagnose and treat diseases and disorders of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The first scientific studies of nerve function in animals were performed in the early 18th century by

Neuromancer, novel (1984) by William Gibson that launched the cyberpunk movement within the science fiction literary genre. The novel, a fast-paced, gritty, Raymond Chandler-esque meditation on a computing-fueled dystopia of the near future, had an impact on many of its readers much like that of

lateral line system: …a series of mechanoreceptors called neuromasts (lateral line organs) arranged in an interconnected network along the head and body. This network is typically arranged in rows; however, neuromasts may also be organized singly. At its simplest, rows of neuromasts appear on the surface of the skin; however, for most fishes,…

hypothalamus: Hypothalamic regulation of hormone secretion: …as neurotransmitters but also as neuromodulators. As neuromodulators, they do not act directly as neurotransmitters but rather increase or decrease the action of neurotransmitters. Well-known examples are the opioids (e.g., enkephalins), so named because they are endogenous (produced in the human body) peptides (short chains of amino acids) with a…

drug: Drugs that affect skeletal muscle: The action of competitive neuromuscular blocking drugs can be reversed by anticholinesterases, which inhibit the rapid destruction of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction and thus enhance its action on the muscle fibre. Normally this has little effect, but, in the presence of a competitive neuromuscular blocking agent, transmission can…

neuromuscular junction, site of chemical communication between a nerve fibre and a muscle cell. The neuromuscular junction is analogous to the synapse between two neurons. A nerve fibre divides into many terminal branches; each terminal ends on a region of muscle fibre called the end plate.

neuron, basic cell of the nervous system in vertebrates and most invertebrates from the level of the cnidarians (e.g., corals, jellyfish) upward. A typical neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus and two or more long fibres. Impulses are carried along one or more of these fibres, called

nervous system: The nerve cell: …hypothesis, now known as the neuron theory, each nerve cell communicates with others through contiguity rather than continuity. That is, communication between adjacent but separate cells must take place across the space and barriers separating them. It has since been proved that Cajal’s theory is not universally true, but his…

Gerald Maurice Edelman: …brain development and function called neuronal group selection, which he explained in a trilogy of books (1987–89) for a scientific audience and in Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (1992) for laypersons. He also wrote Wider than the Sky: The Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness (2004) and…