Herman Cain: …a parallel position with the National Restaurant Association. He had previously (1994–95) served as the association’s chairman of the board. Cain was also deputy chairman (1992–94) and chairman (1995–96) of the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City.

American Association of Retired Persons: …the AARP merged with the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA), an organization that Andrus had founded in 1947 to obtain pension and health insurance benefits for retired educators.

National Review, biweekly magazine of news and opinion published in New York City, and the leading conservative journal in the United States. It was founded in 1955 by William F. Buckley, Jr. Each issue features a long article addressing a major issue, usually political, on the American or

Rila Monastery: …a cradle for the “National Revival” of Bulgaria. The monastery supported book publishing, a library and archives, and various educational institutions. It also attracted a large number of pilgrims.

Republic of the Congo: Congo since independence: …left, notably by founding the National Revolutionary Movement (Mouvement National de la Révolution; MNR) as the sole party. The country sought assistance from the Soviet Union and China and voted with the more radical African states in world forums. Regionally, Congo extended concrete support and offered a geographic base for…

Bolivia: The rise of new political groups and the Bolivian National Revolution: …the middle-class and initially fascist-oriented Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario; MNR) and the Marxist and largely pro-Soviet Party of the Revolutionary Left (Partido de la Izquierda Revolucionaria; PIR). Both groups established important factions in the national congress of 1940–44. In 1943 the civilian president General Enrique Peñaranda was overthrown…

Juvénal Habyarimana: Presidency: In 1975 he established the National Revolutionary Movement for Development, with himself as sole leader of the single-party state. A new constitution promulgated in December 1978 provided for a return to civilian rule, and in elections held that same month Habyarimana was elected president. He was reelected in 1983 and…

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), Mexican political party that dominated the country’s political institutions from its founding in 1929 until the end of the 20th century. Virtually all important figures in Mexican national and local politics belonged to the party, because the nomination of

Saumur: The National Riding School, which occupies vast 19th-century quarters in the west of the town, has retained the Cadre Noir, the military horseback riding instructors who first brought recognition to the cavalry school. Old churches include the austere Romanesque Notre-Dame-de-Nantilly, with notable 15th–17th-century tapestries. Cellars where…

National Rifle Association of America: …NRA was modeled after the National Rifle Association in Great Britain, which had been formed in 1859. The British NRA has its headquarters near Woking, Surrey, England, and the American NRA is headquartered in Fairfax, Virginia.

National Rifle Association of America (NRA), leading gun rights organization in the United States. The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) was founded in New York state in 1871 as a governing body for the sport of shooting with rifles and pistols. By the early 21st century it claimed a

National Road, first federal highway in the United States and for several years the main route to what was then the Northwest Territory. Built (1811–37) from Cumberland, Maryland (western terminus of a state road from Baltimore and of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal), to Vandalia, Illinois, it forms

National Roman Museum, in Rome, one of the world’s greatest museums of ancient Greco-Roman art. It was founded in 1889 and originally housed in a former monastery, probably designed by Michelangelo in the 16th century, on the site of the Baths of Diocletian. In the 1980s the museum acquired several

Elk City: The National Route 66 Museum, celebrating the historic highway linking Chicago with Los Angeles, opened in 1998 and is a popular local attraction. Inc. 1907. Pop. (2000) 10,510; (2010) 11,693.

Romania: The revolution of 1989: …to Ceaușescu quickly formed the National Salvation Front (NSF) to lead the country through the transition from communism to democracy, but, by the spring of 1990, fundamental differences had arisen within this group over the direction and pace of change. Those who favoured the removal of all former communists from…

Abdullah Gül: …a parliamentary candidate of the National Salvation Party (NSP; Millî Selâmet Partisi), the first Islamist party to make an impact. After Gül graduated (1971) with a degree in economics from Istanbul University, where he was active in the nationalist Turkish National Students’ Union, he spent two years conducting postgraduate studies…

Greece: From the National Schism to dictatorship: The dynamism and sense of national unity that had characterized the early Venizélos years gave way to rancour and vengefulness that were to poison the country’s political life throughout World War I and the interwar period. Greece was torn apart by…

employee training: …founding in 1945 of the National School of Administration in Paris, which serves as both a professional school and a recruitment agency for the French government’s administrative and diplomatic services. Great Britain, India, and other countries have developed their own schools to train civil servants.

National School of Drama (NSD), educational institution in New Delhi founded in 1959 for the study of theatre and providing training in acting, stagecraft, and related subjects. It is considered the foremost school of its kind in India. The NSD was established under the aegis of the Sangeet Natak

École des Beaux-Arts, school of fine arts founded (as the Académie Royale d’Architecture) in Paris in 1671 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, minister of Louis XIV; it merged with the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (founded in 1648) in 1793. The school offered instruction in drawing, painting,

education: Education changes during World War II: … or national schools, under the National School Order issued in 1941. The order proclaimed the idea of a national polity or spirit peculiar to Japan; the content and the methods of education were revised to reflect this nationalism. Moreover, the period of compulsory education was officially extended to eight years,…

Ellen Ochoa: …become vice chair of the National Science Board (NSB), which runs the National Science Foundation. She served as NSB chair in 2020–22.

National Science Foundation (NSF), an independent agency of the U.S. government that supports basic research and education in a wide range of sciences and in mathematics and engineering. Inspired by advances in science and technology that occurred as a result of World War II, the NSF was

Internet: Foundation of the Internet: …development and operation of the NSFNET, a national “backbone” network to connect these centres. By the late 1980s the network was operating at millions of bits per second. NSF also funded various nonprofit local and regional networks to connect other users to the NSFNET. A few commercial networks also began…

National Science Museum, museum in Tokyo, founded in 1872, concerned with the history of the physical sciences, natural history, and technology. The collections include models of Japanese flora in wax and other materials, engineering and scientific apparatus, and machines of historical

Bruce Alberts: …the advisory board of the National Science Resources Center (1990–93), a joint project of the NAS and the Smithsonian Institution. While president of NAS, Alberts was integral in the formulation and release in 1996 of the final National Science Education Standards. He ensured that the standards had been reviewed by…

Quoc-ngu, writing system used for the Vietnamese language. Quoc-ngu was devised in the mid 17th century by Portuguese missionaries who modified the Roman alphabet with accents and signs to suit the particular consonants, vowels, and tones of Vietnamese. It was further modified by a French

national seashore, in the United States, any of a number of coastal areas reserved by the federal government for recreational use by the public. Cape Hatteras in North Carolina was established as the first national seashore in 1953. Others have since been added and include Cape Cod (Massachusetts),

intelligence: National intelligence systems: It is likely that during the Cold War some national intelligence systems, especially those in the major countries, grew beyond their optimal size. Some countries also have experienced problems controlling their intelligence systems. In both democracies and authoritarian societies, these organizations are…

National Security Act, U.S. military- and foreign-policy reform legislation, signed into law by Pres. Harry S. Truman in July 1947, which reorganized the structure of the U.S. armed forces following World War II. It created the office of Secretary of Defense to oversee the nation’s military

National Security Agency (NSA), U.S. intelligence agency within the Department of Defense that is responsible for cryptographic and communications intelligence and security. Its headquarters are in Fort Meade, Maryland. The NSA grew out of the communications intelligence activities of U.S. military

intelligence: Iran: …revolution of 1978–79 in Iran, SAVAK (Organization of National Security and Information), the Iranian secret police and intelligence service, protected the regime of the shah by arresting, torturing, and executing many dissidents. After the shah’s government fell, SAVAK and other intelligence services were eliminated and new services were created, though…

intelligence: Taiwan: The once-covert National Security Bureau, developed in China in 1955, had a long history of clandestine arrests and executions. In 1994 it became a formal legal institution, and the names of its senior officials appeared in the press for the first time. The agency, which is under…

National Security Council (NSC), U.S. agency within the Executive Office of the President, established by the National Security Act in 1947 to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies related to national security. The president of the United States is chairman of the NSC;

Turkey: The 1980s: A five-member National Security Council took control, suspending the constitution and implementing a provisional constitution that gave almost unlimited power to military commanders. Martial law, which had been established in a number of provinces in 1979, was extended throughout Turkey, and a major security operation was launched…

Pervez Musharraf: He formed the National Security Council, made up of civilian and military appointees, to run Pakistan in the interim. In early 2001 he assumed the presidency and later attempted to negotiate an agreement with India over the Kashmir region. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 in the…

National Security Education Program: NSEP is administered by the National Security Education Board, which is composed of 14 members, 8 of whom are senior federal officials and 6 of whom come from outside the federal government (such as presidents of colleges and universities) and are appointed by the president. The board makes sure that…

National Security Education Program (NSEP), U.S. federal scholarship and fellowship program administered by the Department of Defense to provide financial assistance to American undergraduate and graduate students who study foreign languages and other internationally oriented fields related to

George W. Bush: Road to war: …the administration announced a new National Security Strategy of the United States of America. It was notable for its declaration that the United States would act “preemptively,” using military force if necessary, to forestall or prevent threats to its security by terrorists or “rogue states” possessing biological, chemical, or nuclear…

National Security Strategy Report, annual report made by the president of the United States to Congress describing the national security goals of the United States and the strategies used to accomplish those goals. The report, which is prepared by the National Security Council (NSC), examines

September 11 attacks: One World Trade Center and the National September 11 Memorial and Museum: The physical and symbolic void left by the destruction of the Twin Towers was filled on November 3, 2014, with the opening of One World Trade Center, a 1,776-foot (541.3-metre) skyscraper, which instantly became a dramatic new landmark on…

George Bernard Shaw on socialism: …the bankrupt industries, and compulsory national service in civil as in military life for all classes, dare not confront their constituents with such proposals, knowing that on increased taxation alone they would lose their seats. To escape responsibility, they look to the suppression of parliamentary institutions by coups d’état and…

20th-century international relations: Allied economic management: The National Service Act of December 1941 outdid even the U.S.S.R. by making every man under 50 and every woman under 30 liable to government assignment. Of the 2,800,000 new war workers, 79 percent were female. The state also cut consumer production to a minimum: 67…

weather forecasting: Predictive skills and procedures: …National Weather Service operates a National Severe Storms Forecasting Center (NSSFC) in Kansas City, Mo., where SELS forecasters survey the atmosphere for the conditions that can spawn tornadoes or severe thunderstorms. This group of SELS forecasters, assembled in 1952, monitors temperature and water vapour in an effort to identify the…

city manager: …the United States by the National Short Ballot Organization, which proposed to improve local and state government by reducing the number of elected officials. In 1913 Dayton, Ohio, was the first large city to adopt the plan. It spread quickly after that as the plan was adopted in many cities…

ski patrol: …in the world is the National Ski Patrol System of the United States, founded in 1938, with headquarters in Denver, Colo.

football: Asia and Oceania: …most prominent members of the National Soccer League (NSL) when it started in 1977. The league has widened its scope, however, to include a highly successful Perth side, plus a Brisbane club and even one from Auckland, New Zealand. The NSL collapsed in 2004, but a new league, known as…

Prarthana Samaj: …Society of India and the National Social Conference. Like that of the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj, the success of the Prarthana Samaj in restoring Hindu self-respect was an important factor in the growth of Indian nationalism, which led ultimately to political independence.

Italy: Health and welfare: …range of benefits, is the National Social Insurance Institute (Istituto Nazionale della Previdenza Sociale; INPS).

Friedrich Naumann: Max Weber, Naumann founded the National Social Union (1896), an organization that combined a program of democratic and social reform with a call to national strength. After 1903, however, having failed to establish a political party based on his association, he joined the Freisinnige Vereinigung (Liberal Union)—later (1910) merged with…

Nazism, totalitarian movement led by Adolf Hitler as head of the Nazi Party in Germany. In its intense nationalism, mass appeal, and dictatorial rule, Nazism shared many elements with Italian fascism. However, Nazism was far more extreme both in its ideas and in its practice. In almost every

Nagaland: History: The National Socialist Council of Nagaland, a powerful pro-separatist extremist group, was formed in 1980, but because of disagreements between its members, it split into two factions in 1988. The dominant faction negotiated a cease-fire with the Indian government in 1997. However, the agreement has been…

Nazi Party, political party of the mass movement known as National Socialism. Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, the party came to power in Germany in 1933 and governed by totalitarian methods until 1945. Anti-Semitism was fundamental to the party’s ideology and led to the Holocaust, the

Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français (SNCF), state-owned railroad system of France, formed in 1938. The first railroad in France, from Saint-Étienne to Andrézieux, opened in 1827. A line from Saint-Étienne to Lyon was completed in 1832. In 1840 France had about 300 miles (500 km) of

Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), patriotic society organized October 11, 1890, and chartered by Congress December 2, 1896. Membership is limited to direct lineal descendants of soldiers or others of the Revolutionary period who aided the cause of independence; applicants must have

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency: …the Japanese government founded the National Space Development Agency (NASDA), which subsequently undertook a comprehensive program of space technology and satellite development and built a large launch vehicle, called the H-II, for those satellites. NASDA selected the first Japanese astronauts in 1990 for flights on the U.S. space shuttle. In…

U.S. Secret Service: …major speeches) may be designated National Special Security Events. In these cases the Secret Service works with local and federal law-enforcement organizations to secure the event and the surrounding airspace. In March 2003 the Treasury Department ceded control of the Secret Service to the Department of Homeland Security. A scandal…

National Spelling Bee, spelling bee held annually in the Washington, D.C., area that serves as the culmination of a series of local and regional bees contested by students (mostly American) in grades below the high-school level. It is administered on a not-for-profit basis by the E.W. Scripps

Bantustan, any of 10 former territories that were designated by the white-dominated government of South Africa as pseudo-national homelands for the country’s Black African (classified by the government as Bantu) population during the mid- to late 20th century. The Bantustans were a major

Statuary Hall, the main exhibition space of the National Statuary Hall collection in the U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C. The collection comprises statues of outstanding U.S. citizens chosen by each state. The hall was originally constructed for the House of Representatives, which began using it as a

National Steel Corporation, U.S. iron- and steel-making company that in 1983 became a subsidiary of National Intergroup, Inc.

Salinas: …is buried there; the city’s National Steinbeck Center is devoted to his life and work and sponsors an annual festival. Other popular annual events include the California Rodeo and the California International Airshow. Salinas is the seat of Hartnell (community) College (1920). Near the city are several beaches, state parks,…

Swiss National Park, national park in Graubünden canton, southeastern Switzerland, adjoining the Italian border 15 miles (24 km) northeast of Saint Moritz. Established in 1914 and enlarged in 1959, the park occupies 65 square miles (169 square km) and is made up of a magnificent area in the Central

Kao-hsiung: The National Sun Yat-sen University was founded in 1980 at Kao-hsiung.

Kenya: 2017 elections, annulment of presidential election results, and fresh election: …other parties to form the National Super Alliance (NASA). The new alliance chose to support Odinga for president and Musyoka for deputy president. During the campaign the rhetoric of both groups grew heated, some of which was directed toward the judiciary regarding rulings or anticipated rulings in election-related matters. This…

drug use: Extent of contemporary drug abuse: …drug abuse primarily through the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey (also called National High School Senior Survey). The MTF tracks drug use and attitudes toward drugs among students in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades. The NSDUH tracks the prevalence…

Mexico: Cultural institutions: …are the programs of the National Symphony Orchestra, the Ballet Folklorico, and the Modern and Classical Ballet, all of which perform nationally and internationally to promote Mexican culture. Folk and popular culture also receive support through government bodies, among them the Native Institute, which seeks to preserve and stimulate traditional…

National Symphony Orchestra (NSO), American symphony orchestra based in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1931 by Hans Kindler, who served as its first music director (1931–49). Subsequent directors have been Howard Mitchell (1949–69), Hungarian-born American Antal Dorati (1970–77), distinguished

Mozambique: Education of Mozambique: The National System of Education, implemented in the early 1980s, created programs for people of all ages, part-time as well as full-time students, to improve both literacy and technical education. Private and parochial school facilities were nationalized to facilitate the reorganization and unification of the educational…

Interstate Highway System, a network of public highways established across the United States by federal law. Though highways existed in the United States before the creation of the Interstate Highway System, the passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 funded the construction of more than

Interstate Highway System, a network of public highways established across the United States by federal law. Though highways existed in the United States before the creation of the Interstate Highway System, the passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 funded the construction of more than

Friedrich List: …wrote his most remembered book, The National System of Political Economy (1841). List was perennially plagued with financial difficulties, which, coupled with other problems, drove him to suicide.

Toyo Ito: …Ito’s most ambitious projects, the National Taichung Theater, Taiwan, which was under construction when he received the Pritzker in 2013, was likened by some to an enormous sponge, featuring a labyrinthine network of tunnels, curved walls, and cavernous spaces. It was completed in 2016.

television: Colour television: In 1952 the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) was reformed, this time with the purpose of creating an “industry color system.” The NTSC system that was demonstrated to the press in August 1952 and that would serve into the 21st century was virtually the RCA system. The first…

tennis: Professional and open tennis: …professional groups were formed: the National Tennis League, organized by former U.S. Davis Cup captain George MacCall, and World Championship Tennis (WCT), founded by New Orleans promoter Dave Dixon and funded by Dallas oil and football tycoon Lamar Hunt. Between them they signed a significant number of the world’s top…

National Terrorism Advisory System, two-tiered indicator system that communicates the likelihood of a forthcoming terrorist attack on the United States or its citizens and interests abroad. Two threat-advisory (or threat-alert) levels—“Elevated Threat Alert” and “Imminent Threat Alert”—alert U.S.

Mannheim: …that same year Germany’s first National Theatre opened in Mannheim, and in 1782 it gave the first performance of Friedrich Schiller’s play Die Räuber (The Robbers). Mannheim was destroyed again in 1795, and administrative control was transferred to the state of Baden in 1802. The city was rebuilt and became…

Korean performing arts: After World War II: A new National Theatre was established in Seoul just before the Korean War began; national support included subsidies for performances. In both North and South Korea virtually all theatres were destroyed by the war. Excellent theatres were constructed in the 1970s and ’80s, however, and performances were…

Ferenc Erkel: …of Pest (from 1840 the National Theatre). There he worked to develop Hungarian-language operatic performance with the intention of creating an opera company capable of competing with the German Theatre of Pest. In addition to staging works by Gioachino Rossini, Vincenzo Bellini, Daniel-François-Esprit Auber, and Carl Maria von Weber, he…

Kabuki: Subject, purpose, and conventions: …performances are held at the National Theatre in Tokyo. The city was also home to the Kabuki Theatre (Kabuki-za), which closed in 2010. An office tower—which includes the theatre—was opened on the site in 2013. Other theatres have occasional performances. Troupes of Kabuki actors also perform outside Tokyo. There are…

Iceland: Cultural institutions: The National Theatre began operation in 1950. It performs Icelandic as well as foreign classical and modern plays, operas, ballets, and musicals. The Reykjavík Theatre is the other full-time professional repertory theatre. Several theatre groups present numerous plays and musicals, both in Reykjavík and the countryside.

Royal National Theatre, a partly subsidized complex of British theatre companies that was formed in 1962. It was given a permanent home at the South Bank arts complex in the Greater London borough of Lambeth in 1976. In 1988 Queen Elizabeth II gave permission for the company to add “Royal” to its

Katina Paxinou: …company of the newly formed National Theatre of Athens, she had abandoned singing roles entirely. Tours of the United States, Germany, and England followed, culminating in her acclaimed London debut in the title role of Sophocles’ Electra (1939). The war years restricted her activities to the United States, where she…

Lisbon: Cultural life: Charles and the National Theatre of Dona Maria II are Lisbon’s two principal theatres. The former, which was constructed in the late 18th century, has a beautiful elliptical interior, and the latter, which was built about 1845, displays a facade of six giant columns saved from the convent…

National Theatre of the Deaf (NTD), American theatre, established in 1965 and based in Waterford, Connecticut, that was the world’s first professional deaf-theatre company and was in the early 21st century the oldest continually producing touring-theatre company in the United States. The National

National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act, U.S. legislation that required automobile manufacturers to institute safety standards to protect the public from unreasonable risk of accidents occurring as a result of the design, construction, or operation of automobiles. A closely related

railroad: Canadian railroads: From there, the National Transcontinental Railway crossed the Canadian Shield to Winnipeg. There the project was joined to a line of the Grand Trunk. The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway beginning at Winnipeg passed through the fertile belt of the prairies to Edmonton, continuing thence to Yellowhead Pass and…

Guinea: Constitutional framework: The National Transitional Council (Conseil National de Transition; CNT), a legislative-like body, was formed in February 2010. One of the duties of the CNT was drafting a new constitution, which was promulgated in May 2010. It was succeeded by a new constitution that was passed by…

Liberia: Constitutional framework: …the fighting and created a National Transitional Government (NTG). The NTG, supported by United Nations peacekeeping troops, replaced the government under the 1986 constitution and ruled until a democratically elected administration was installed in 2006.

Nicolas Cage: …during World War II; and National Treasure (2004) and its sequel National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007), which featured Cage as a treasure hunter searching for historical artifacts.

Nicolas Cage: …Treasure (2004) and its sequel National Treasure: Book of Secrets (2007), which featured Cage as a treasure hunter searching for historical artifacts.

Catherine Zeta-Jones: In the TV series National Treasure: Edge of History (2022– ), Zeta-Jones was cast as a villainous antiquities dealer.

trade agreement: A “national treatment of nontariff restrictions” clause is necessary because most of the properties of tariffs can be easily duplicated with an appropriately designed set of nontariff restrictions. These can include discriminatory regulations, selective excise or sales taxes, special “health” requirements, quotas, “voluntary” restraints on importing,…

National Trust, British organization founded in 1895 and incorporated by the National Trust Act (1907) for the purpose of promoting the preservation of—and public access to—buildings of historic or architectural interest and land of natural beauty. (The powers and privileges of the Trust were

art conservation and restoration: Role of law: In the United States the National Trust for Historic Preservation operates in a similar way.

National Trust, British organization founded in 1895 and incorporated by the National Trust Act (1907) for the purpose of promoting the preservation of—and public access to—buildings of historic or architectural interest and land of natural beauty. (The powers and privileges of the Trust were

St. Kilda: …under the authority of the National Trust for Scotland, and they were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986.

New South Wales: Cultural institutions: …preservation, served by the private National Trust of Australia (NSW) and by the state Heritage Council, which has sweeping powers to prevent demolition or alteration of buildings identified as having historical value.

organized labour: Origins of craft unionism: …renaming in 1869 as the International Typographical Union—a designation that became common in North American unionism.

fascism: National fascisms: …led by Ante Pavelić; the National Union (Nasjonal Samling) in Norway, which was in power for only a week—though its leader, Vidkun Quisling, was later made minister president under the German occupation; and the military dictatorship of Admiral Tojo Hideki in Japan.