Joshua Nkomo: …in 1960 and founded the National Democratic Party (NDP); in 1961, when the NDP was banned in turn, he founded ZAPU. The white-minority government of Rhodesia held Nkomo in detention from 1964 until 1974. After his release he traveled widely in Africa and Europe to promote ZAPU’s goal of Black…

Samuel Ladoke Akintola: He formed the Nigerian National Democratic Party but was never able to win the votes of the majority of the region. His blatantly rigged election in 1965 was undoubtedly an immediate cause of the January 1966 coup in which he was slain.

National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), right-wing German nationalist party that called for German unification during the Cold War and advocated law and order as well as an end to German “guilt” for World War II. The party’s founders included many former supporters of the Nazis. In the 1950s,

Algeria: Constitutional referendum and the election of Abdelaziz Bouteflika: …a new government party, the National Democratic Rally (Rassemblement National et Démocratique; RND), was formed. Benefiting from unlimited government support, including the use of official buildings and funds, the RND quickly gained power. In the June elections for the National People’s Assembly, the RND won 156 out of 380 seats,…

Barack Obama: Life after the presidency of Barack Obama: …indicated his support for the National Democratic Redistricting Committee, an organization led by former attorney general Eric Holder that was focused on executing a comprehensive redistricting strategy to counter what it saw as the abuses of Republican gerrymandering.

North Macedonia: Independence of North Macedonia: …seats, and the newly formed National Democratic Revival (RK), with about 3 percent and 2 seats. This proved to be a period of extensive political turmoil, which included a prolonged boycott of the parliament by the SDSM.

Russia: Russification policies: …course illegal, political parties appeared—the National Democrats and the Polish Socialist Party, both fundamentally anti-Russian.

dentistry: Organizations: In addition, the National Dental Association exists to represent ethnic minorities in dentistry in the United States. The National Dental Association was formed in 1932 by African American dentists, who were experiencing racial discrimination and were prevented from becoming members of organized dental societies. Today the American Dental…

education: Education and civil society: …Meyer and Michael Hannan in National Development and the World System: Educational, Economic, and Political Change, 1950–1970 (1979), formal systems of education not only represent the means by which nation-states have modernized and prospered economically but are also the surest route to enhancing the talents of individuals. As a requirement…

Raila Odinga: Early life and political activity: …left FORD–K and joined the National Development Party (NDP).

National Dialogue Quartet, coalition of Tunisian civil society organizations—the Tunisian General Labour Union (Union Générale Tunisienne du Travail; UGTT), the Tunisian Order of Lawyers (Ordre National des Avocats de Tunisie), the Tunisian Confederation of Industry, Trade and Handicrafts (Union

Angola: Resources and power: The National Diamond Enterprise of Angola, a parastatal company, is responsible for approving diamond concessions, and it also licenses buyers. In 1992–94 most Angolan diamonds on the market were mined and smuggled from regions controlled by UNITA. The Angolan government gained control of this area in…

Sierra Leone: Resources and power: The National Diamond Mining Company (Diminco) also mined diamonds until 1995. Mining methods range from mechanical grab lines with washing and separator plants to crude hand digging and panning. Many diamonds are found in river gravels, especially along the Sewa-Bafi river system. Official exports of diamonds…

National Diet Library, the national library of Japan, formed at Tokyo in 1948 and combining the libraries of the upper and lower houses of the Diet (national legislature) with the collections of the former Imperial Library (established 1872). The library’s building opened in 1961, adjacent to the

Library of Congress: …library is also leading the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program, a collaborative effort mandated in 2000 by Congress to preserve the country’s digital assets.

Library of Congress: …Library of Congress launched the National Digital Library Program (NDLP), making freely available on the Internet high-quality electronic versions of American historical material from the library’s special collections. By the end of the library’s bicentennial year in 2000, more than five million items (manuscripts, films, sound recordings, and photographs) had…

drug use: National controls: …to the creation of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). The ONDCP establishes drug-control policy and sets national goals for reducing the illicit use and trafficking of drugs. It is also responsible for producing the National Drug Control Strategy (NDCS). The NDCS is designed to facilitate effective drug-control…

drug use: National controls: …also responsible for producing the National Drug Control Strategy (NDCS). The NDCS is designed to facilitate effective drug-control measures at local levels by providing information on drugs and drug abuse for community members and by making various resources for drug control available to local officials.

duckpins: …it is governed by the National Duck Pin Bowling Congress (founded Sept. 8, 1927). The game was introduced in 1900 at a bowling alley owned by professional baseball players Wilbert Robinson and John J. McGraw.

economic planning: Origins of planning: …1961, to set up a National Economic Development Council to draft a five-year economic plan that would emphasize much more rapid economic growth. The Netherlands, which had been very successful since the war in achieving balanced economic growth, initiated five-year plans in 1963 through the medium of the Central Planning…

economic system: Centralized states: Very little is known of the origin of the second of the great systems of social coordination—namely, the creation of a central apparatus of command and rulership. From ancient clusters of population, impressive civilizations emerged in Egypt, China, and India during the 3rd…

National Education Association (NEA), American voluntary association of teachers, administrators, and other educators associated with elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. It is the world’s largest professional organization. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. The

Wales: Cultural institutions: …annually in August at the National Eisteddfod of Wales, a competitive and highly individualized festival held alternately in North and South Wales. The Eisteddfod consists of competitions in all aspects of music, literature, drama, and art, together with a series of dramatic performances and concerts, all in the Welsh language.…

Voter News Service: …service was replaced by the National Election Pool (NEP).

Reginald Aubrey Fessenden: …Pittsburgh financiers in organizing the National Electric Signaling Company to manufacture his inventions, which they intended to sell to customers such as the U.S. Navy or shipping companies whose far-flung operations would benefit from wireless telegraph communication. The company was also interested in competing with Guglielmo Marconi in transmitting across…

Saab AB: …purchased by the start-up company National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS).

Endesa: …and the Italian energy company Enel. Two years later Enel purchased Acciona’s stake, thereby taking full control of Endesa.

National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), an independent agency of the U.S. government that supports the creation, dissemination, and performance of the arts. It was created by the U.S. Congress in the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965. The agency funds a variety of

National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), an independent agency of the U.S. government that supports research, education, preservation, and public programs in the humanities. It was created by the U.S. Congress in the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965. The

Canada: Second premiership: …was the basis of the National Energy Program (NEP), introduced in the fall of 1980, which was designed to speed up the “Canadianization” of the energy industry and vastly increase Ottawa’s share of energy revenues. The NEP created a fierce conflict between the central government and the energy-producing provinces (particularly…

National Enquirer, American weekly newspaper best known for its celebrity gossip, crime news, and investigative reporting. The Enquirer is commonly termed a “supermarket tabloid” because of its wide availability at grocery-store checkout counters. It is also sold on newsstands and through

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the first major U.S. environmental law. Enacted in 1969 and signed into law in 1970 by President Richard M. Nixon, NEPA requires all federal agencies to go through a formal process before taking any action anticipated to have substantial impact on the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

John Mercer Langston: …1864 he helped organize the National Equal Rights League, of which he was the first president.

Robert Owen: Leadership of the trade union movement: …to the formation of the National Equitable Labour Exchange, which applied the principle that labour is the source of all wealth.

Gamaliel Bailey: …1847 Bailey became editor of The National Era, established in Washington, D.C., by the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. With its considerable circulation, this paper exerted a strong political and moral influence. Among its contributors were Nathaniel Hawthorne, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Theodore Parker; in its pages Harriet Beecher Stowe’s…

National Etruscan Museum, museum in Rome devoted principally to antiquities of the pre-Roman period from ancient Umbria, Latium, and southern Etruria. Since 1889 the museum has been housed in the Villa Giulia, or Villa di Papa Giulio (Pope Julius), which was built in the mid-16th century for Pope

Labour Party: Policy and structure: …conference is to elect the National Executive Committee (NEC), which oversees the party’s day-to-day affairs. Twelve members of the NEC are elected by trade union delegates, seven by CLPs, five by women delegates, one by youth delegates, and one by delegates from affiliated socialist societies.

Berlin: Transportation: The Bundesautobahn (National Expressway) in Berlin is part of a national superhighway network inaugurated before World War II. The system is linked with the Berliner Ring, a circle of autobahns around the city with Berlin in the centre of access spokes. Even before 1990, both Germanys…

Chile: New political groupings: …their party to form the National Falange (Falange Nacional). In 1957 the National Falange fused with the Social Christian Party (which had also seceded from the Conservatives) to form the Christian Democratic Party, whose program tended toward serious reforms in the archaic economic and social structures. The Communist Party regained…

United Farm Workers (UFW), U.S. labour union founded in 1962 as the National Farm Workers Association by the labour leaders and activists Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta. It seeks to empower migrant farmworkers and to improve their wages and working conditions. The union also works to promote

Louis Sullivan: Later work of Louis Sullivan: …Midwestern towns, beginning with the National Farmers’ (now Security) Bank in Owatonna, Minnesota. Sullivan’s work habits had become erratic, and it is known that this particular design is primarily the work of Elmslie. It has a simple cube form pierced on two sides by large arched windows. Its walls of…

Fascist Party (PNF), political party formed by Benito Mussolini in November 1921 and dissolved in 1943 after he was deposed. It served as the political instrument for the Italian fascist movement and Mussolini, its leader. From 1922 to 1943, a period referred to as the ventennio fascista (“twenty

Lena Madesin Phillips: …at which was formed the National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, and from then until 1923 she was executive secretary of the federation. While traveling widely to foster the establishment of local clubs, she helped found the federation’s journal, Independent Woman, in 1920. In 1923, after receiving a…

Christian fundamentalism: The late 19th to the mid-20th century: …of Baptists calling themselves the National Federation of Fundamentalists began holding annual preconvention conferences on Baptist fundamentals. When their attempts to carry their views into the convention failed to make immediate progress, the more militant among them founded the Baptist Bible Union. Eventually the militants left the denomination to form…

National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB), the largest political advocacy organization in the United States that represents small and independent businesses. NFIB was founded in 1943, and it provides resources to small business owners and managers and works to influence national and state

Affordable Care Act cases: Certiorari petitions: …expansion) and two new cases, National Federation of Independent Business et al. v. Kathleen Sebelius, Secretary of Health and Human Services, et al. (severability) and Department of Health and Human Services et al. v. Florida et al. (the individual mandate and the Anti-Injunction Act). By that time the court had…

Phyllis Schlafly: …for the presidency of the National Federation of Republican Women (for which she had served, since 1965, as first vice president), Schlafly began publishing The Phyllis Schlafly Report, a monthly newsletter intended to mobilize her supporters and inform them about political issues and candidates. In a 1972 issue of the…

basketball: The early years: …during the same year the National Federation of State High School Associations likewise assumed the task of establishing separate playing rules for the high schools. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Rules Committee for men is a 12-member board representing all three NCAA divisions. It has six members from Division…

history of the blind: The organization of the blind in the United States: …in 1940 to charter the National Federation of the Blind (NFB). The NFB organized affiliates across the United States to become the largest advocacy group of blind people. The NFB began publishing the Braille Monitor in 1957 and produced a number of leaders in the “blind movement” who advanced the…

Fiji: History of Fiji: In 1987, however, the Indian-dominated National Federation Party joined in coalition with the new Labour Party (led by a Fijian, Timoci Bavadra), which had strong support from Fijian and Indian trade unionists. The coalition was successful in elections held in April. The new government, which had a majority of Indian…

Sam Brownback: …the state president of the Future Farmers of America in high school, where his passion for politics began. He graduated from Kansas State University (where he was student body president) in 1978 and received a law degree from the University of Kansas in 1982. After graduating from law school, Brownback…

archery: History: In 1939 the National Field Archery Association of the United States was established to promote hunting, roving, and field archery. The number of archers around the world increased phenomenally after 1930, led by remarkable growth in the United States. By the late 20th century there were probably more…

National Film Board of Canada (NFB), Canadian department of film production. It was established in 1939 and directed by John Grierson (1898–1972), who developed the studio into a leading producer of documentaries, including the World War II propaganda series Canada Carries On and The World in

National Film Registry, list of movies selected for preservation by the U.S. Library of Congress, in consultation with its National Film Preservation Board, the public, and LOC film curators. Every year, 25 films that have been deemed “culturally, historically or aesthetically significant” to

Trevor Brazile: He first qualified for the NFR—the rodeo season’s final event, in which only the best cowboys compete—in 1998 in team roping, which involves two participants: the header, who ropes the steer’s head, and the heeler, who ropes the legs.

Flag Day, in the United States, a day honouring the national flag, observed on June 14. The holiday commemorates the date in 1777 when the United States approved the design for its first national flag. The idea to set aside a day to honour the national flag came from several sources. Bernard J.

National Football League (NFL), major American professional football organization, founded in 1920 in Canton, Ohio, as the American Professional Football Association. Its first president was Jim Thorpe, an outstanding American athlete who was also a player in the league. The NFL’s present name was

Canton: …in organizing the sport, the Pro Football Hall of Fame was established there in 1963.

Gene Upshaw: In 1994 he helped launch National Football League Players, Inc., an association that greatly increased the marketing and licensing power of NFL players. Upshaw was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1987.

national forest, in the United States, any of numerous forest areas set aside under federal supervision for the purposes of conserving water, timber, wildlife, fish, and other renewable resources and providing recreational areas for the public. The national forests are administered by the Forest

March of Dimes Foundation, American charitable organization dedicated to preventing childhood diseases, birth defects, and premature births and to reducing infant mortality. It was founded as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis in 1938 by U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, who envisioned

National Endowment for the Arts: Congress in the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965. The agency funds a variety of projects in literature, music, theatre, film, dance, fine arts, sculpture, and crafts. It also manages the awarding of the National Medal of Arts. This medal is presented by…

Inkatha Freedom Party: …Inkatha in 2011, forming the National Freedom Party, which further diluted Inkatha’s support. In the 2014 national and provincial elections, Inkatha won little more than 2 percent of the national vote, netting 10 seats in the National Assembly, and came in third in KwaZulu-Natal. The party saw a slight improvement…

Hayward: The National Fresh Water Fishing Hall of Fame, which maintains records of the largest freshwater fish caught in the world, exhibits hundreds of fishing artifacts as well as a four-and-a-half-story fibreglass likeness of a muskellunge (musky; a type of pike), complete with an observation deck in…

V.P. Singh: …nationwide opposition coalition called the National Front (NF), which contested the general parliamentary elections of November 1989. After that election, Singh, as the NF leader, was able to form a coalition government in alliance with two other major opposition parties. He was sworn in as India’s prime minister on December…

Czechoslovak history: The provisional regime: …formed a coalition called the National Front, collaboration between the communists and noncommunists was difficult from the beginning. While all parties agreed that economic recovery should remain the priority, and while a two-year plan was launched to carry it out, they began to differ as to the means to be…

Tunisia: Domestic development: The National Front, an alliance of the Destourian Socialist Party and the trade union movement, swept all 136 parliamentary seats, a result received with cynicism and dismay by the opposition. Meanwhile, an Islamist opposition was developing around the Islamic Tendency Movement (Mouvement de la Tendance Islamique…

Declaration of Sitges: …Conservatives to form a coalition National Front government to replace the dictatorial regime of Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. Lleras and Gómez, who had met in Benidorm, Spain, in 1956 to discuss the ouster of Rojas, returned the following year to Sitges, where, on July 20, they agreed to a plan devised…

Albania: World War II: …contended with them for power—the National Front (Balli Kombëtar) and the pro-Zog Legality Party (Legaliteti)—the communists seized control of the country on November 29, 1944. Enver Hoxha, a college instructor who had led the resistance struggle of communist forces, became the leader of Albania by virtue of his post as…

Malaysia: Political process: …the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN), a broad coalition of ethnically oriented parties. Among the oldest and strongest of these parties are the United Malays National Organization (UMNO; long the driving force of the National Front), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC),…

National Rally, far right French political party founded in 1972 by François Duprat and François Brigneau. It is most commonly associated with Jean-Marie Le Pen, who was its leader from 1972 to 2011, and his daughter Marine Le Pen, who succeeded her father in 2011 and led the party until 2022.

Madagascar: The Second Republic: …the core of the broader National Front for the Defense of the Revolution (Front National pour la Défense de la Révolution; FNDR). Only parties admitted to this umbrella organization were allowed to participate in political activities.

Uíge: …between Portuguese forces and the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola; FNLA), one of three Angolan preindependence guerrilla movements. The fighting, which occurred primarily from 1961 to 1974, resulted in heightened instability in the city and surrounding area, as did the subsequent Angolan…

National Liberation Front (NLF), Vietnamese political organization formed on December 20, 1960, to effect the overthrow of the South Vietnamese government and the reunification of North and South Vietnam. An overtly communist party was established in 1962 as a central component of the NLF, but both

National Liberation Front (NLF), Vietnamese political organization formed on December 20, 1960, to effect the overthrow of the South Vietnamese government and the reunification of North and South Vietnam. An overtly communist party was established in 1962 as a central component of the NLF, but both

Mohammad Mosaddegh: Mosaddegh and his National Front Party continued to gain power but alienated many supporters, particularly among the ruling elite and in the Western nations. The British soon withdrew completely from the Iranian oil market, and economic problems increased when Mosaddegh could not readily find alternate oil markets.

Edinburgh: Cultural life: …major cultural institution is the National Galleries of Scotland. It includes the National Gallery on the Mound, with a fine international collection of art as well as a representative collection of Scottish painters, including many with particular connections to Edinburgh. Each year the National Gallery hosts a temporary exhibition of…

National Gallery, German art museum that is part of the National Museums of Berlin (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin). It is housed in six buildings: the Old National Gallery (Alte Nationalgalerie) and its affiliate, the Friedrichswerder Church (Friedrichswerdersche Kirche); the Hamburger Bahnhof; the

National Gallery, in Oslo, Norwegian national art museum, built in 1836 and enlarged in 1903–07, devoted primarily to Norwegian paintings and sculpture of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 2003 the National Gallery joined with three other Norwegian museums to become the National Museum of Art,

National Gallery, art museum in London that houses Great Britain’s national collection of European paintings. It is located on the north side of Trafalgar Square, Westminster. (Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on art appreciation.) The National Gallery was founded in 1824 when the British

museum: New museums and collections: …for instance, Australia opened its National Gallery of Art in Canberra. Also in Australia the National Gallery of Victoria was developed as part of Melbourne’s arts complex, while Sydney’s Powerhouse Museum (1988) introduced a major attraction in that city. In Paris the Pompidou Centre (1977) brought together several public collections…

National Gallery of Art, American museum of art that is federally operated. It is located at the east end of the Mall, Washington, D.C. The museum was founded in 1937 when the financier and philanthropist Andrew W. Mellon donated to the government a collection of paintings by European masters and a

museum of modern art: History: …Britain the Tate Gallery (now Tate Britain, one of four Tate galleries)—founded in 1897 as the National Gallery of British Art (later officially renamed the Tate Gallery in honour of Henry Tate, its initial donor) and part of the National Gallery of Art until 1954, when it formally became an…

National Gallery of Canada, national art museum founded in Ottawa in 1880. Its holdings include extensive collections of Canadian art as well as important European works. Its nucleus was formed with the donation of diploma works by members of the Royal Canadian Academy. In 1911 the drawing

National Gallery of Modern and Contemporary Art, in Rome, important collection devoted to 19th- to 21st-century art, including paintings, drawings, sculptures, and installations. The museum was begun in 1883, and in 1914 it moved to its present site in the Palazzo delle Belle Arti. The building was

Urbino: …landmarks—the Ducal Palace, now the National Gallery of the Marches, with an important collection of paintings; and the mausoleum of San Bernardino outside the town—date from the late 15th century. The seat of an archbishop, Urbino’s 15th-century cathedral was rebuilt in the Neoclassical style after an earthquake in 1789. Its…

National Gallery of Victoria, major Australian art museum, located in Melbourne, Victoria, with collections ranging over European, Asian, and Australian art of all periods. The museum was once housed entirely in the Victorian Arts Centre, with a Great Hall featuring a dramatic stained-glass ceiling

baseball: Baseball and the arts: Spink’s The National Game (1910) and A.G. Spalding’s America’s National Game (1911), generally regarded as the first attempts at writing a standard history of baseball, cite “Casey at the Bat” as the best baseball poem ever written. Spalding goes so far as to proclaim that “Love…

Ganges River: Environmental issues: …a new government organization, the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA), was launched as a successor to the GAP. The NGRBA also faced criticism for inaction in its early years of existence.

National LGBTQ Task Force, American nongovernmental organization founded in 1973 that advocates for the civil rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals. It was the first such national-level nonprofit organization, and it mobilizes state-level training of LGBTQ

National LGBTQ Task Force, American nongovernmental organization founded in 1973 that advocates for the civil rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals. It was the first such national-level nonprofit organization, and it mobilizes state-level training of LGBTQ

Philip Freneau: …1793 of the strongly Republican National Gazette in Philadelphia. Freneau alternated quiet periods at sea with periods of active newspaper work, until he retired early in the 19th century to his farm in Monmouth county.

Gender Issues in Malawi: The National Gender Policy aims to raise awareness of gender matters, legal rights of women, diet and the efficient utilization of food and nutrition, and the economic empowerment of women in conjunction with the poverty alleviation program. Another important aspect of the National Gender Policy is…

National Geographic Magazine, monthly magazine of geography, archaeology, anthropology, and exploration, providing the armchair traveler with literate and accurate accounts and unsurpassed photographs and maps to comprehend those pursuits. It is published in Washington, D.C. The magazine was

National Geographic Magazine: …and 21st Century Fox formed National Geographic Partners, a for-profit media company that included the magazine, National Geographic’s TV channels, and other properties. As part of the deal, Fox controlled 73 percent of the venture, with the remaining stake being held by the society, which was paid $725 million.

National Geographic Society, American scientific society founded (1888) in Washington, D.C., by a small group of eminent explorers and scientists “for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge.” The nonprofit organization, which is among the world’s largest scientific and educational

Palomar Observatory: …larger Schmidt camera produced the National Geographic Society–Palomar Observatory Sky Survey in the 1950s, which was a collection of 935 pairs of 14-inch (36-cm) square glass photographic plates that recorded, down to the 20th magnitude, all objects that were visible from Mount Palomar.

Poland: The January 1863 uprising and its aftermath: …Reds, who created an underground National Committee, and the Whites, who also set up a clandestine organization. Wielopolski decided to break the Reds by drafting large numbers of them into the Russian army. In January 1863 the National Committee, left with no choice but to take up the challenge, called…

government, the political system by which a country or community is administered and regulated. Most of the key words commonly used to describe governments—words such as monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy—are of Greek or Roman origin. They have been current for more than 2,000 years and have not