cookiecutter shark, either of two species of living sharks classified as part of the genus Isistius, in the family Dalatiidae, named for their tendency to excise cookie cutter-shaped plugs of flesh from the larger marine animals they feed upon. Whereas the biology and distribution of the smalltooth

Iskandar Muda was the sultan of Aceh in northern Sumatra under whom the region achieved its greatest territorial expansion and an international reputation as a centre of trade and of Islamic learning. When Iskandar Muda began his reign in 1607, he immediately undertook a series of naval actions

sultanate of Malacca: …and first ruler of Malacca, Paramesvara (died 1424, Malacca), a Sumatran prince who had fled his native Palembang under Javanese attack, established himself briefly in Tumasik (now Singapore) and settled in Malacca in the last years of the 14th century or early in the 15th. Malacca, on a fine natural…

Persian literature: The proliferation of court patronage: The last poem is the Iskandar-nāmeh (“Book of Alexander the Great”), which consists of two parts: the first deals with Alexander’s military campaigns, and the second contains his conversations with the sages and philosophers assembled at his court. Neẓāmī’s poem is based on Ferdowsī’s treatment of the same story, but…

Alexandria, major city and urban muḥāfaẓah (governorate) in Egypt. Once among the greatest cities of the Mediterranean world and a centre of Hellenic scholarship and science, Alexandria was the capital of Egypt from its founding by Alexander the Great in 332 bce until its surrender to the Arab

Al-Iskandariyyah, muḥāfaẓah (governorate), Lower Egypt. The muḥāfaẓah is densely settled in the north in and around its capital, Alexandria (Al-Iskandariyyah); it includes a desert hinterland extending south more than 50 miles (80 km) into the Western Desert. Alexandria, in the northeastern

Skanderbeg was the national hero of the Albanians. A son of John (Gjon) Kastrioti, prince of Emathia, George was early given as hostage to the Turkish sultan. Converted to Islām and educated at Edirne, Turkey, he was given the name Iskander—after Alexander the Great—and the rank of bey (hence

Fazil Iskander was an Abkhazian author who wrote in Russian and was best known for using humour and a digressive anecdotal style in his often satirical portrayals of life in Soviet Abkhazia. Iskander, who was raised in Abkhazia, graduated from the Gorky Literary Institute in Moscow in 1954. He

Fazil Iskander was an Abkhazian author who wrote in Russian and was best known for using humour and a digressive anecdotal style in his often satirical portrayals of life in Soviet Abkhazia. Iskander, who was raised in Abkhazia, graduated from the Gorky Literary Institute in Moscow in 1954. He

Tajikistan: Drainage and soils: The Zeravshan Range contains Iskanderkul, which, like most of the country’s lakes, is of glacial origin.

Iskŭr River, longest (after the Danube) river in Bulgaria, formed south of Samokov in the Rila Mountains by its headstreams, the Beli (White) Iskŭr and Cherni (Black) Iskŭr. It cuts a 40-mile (65-km) gorge through the Balkan Mountains to bring the high basin of Sofia (1,800 feet [550 metres]) into

Hare Krishna, popular name of a semimonastic Vaishnava Hindu organization founded in the United States in 1965 by A.C. Bhaktivedanta (Swami Prabhupada; 1896–1977). This movement is a Western outgrowth of the popular Bengali bhakti (devotional) yoga tradition, or Krishna Consciousness, which began

Kazan, capital city, Tatarstan republic, western Russia. It lies just north of the Samara Reservoir on the Volga River, where it is joined by the Kazanka River. The city stretches for about 15 miles (25 km) along hills, which are much dissected by ravines. Ancient Kazan (Iske Kazan) was founded in

Larnaca, port town, southeastern Republic of Cyprus. The modern town, on the bay between Capes Kiti and Pyla, overlays much of ancient Citium, founded by the Mycenaeans in the 13th century bce; it was rebuilt by the Byzantines. Citium was the birthplace of the Greek philosopher Zeno of Citium, the

Taceddin Ahmedi: …of his best-known works, the Iskendername (“The Book of Alexander”), a work that he had dedicated originally to Amīr Süleyman of the house of Germiyan in Kütahya but that he revised and added to for many years. Modeled after the work of the great Persian poet Neẓāmī (d. 1209), Ahmedi’s…

İskenderun: …seaport and chief city of İskenderun ilçe (district), Hatay il (province), southern Turkey. Located on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Iskenderun, it lies on or near the site of Alexandria ad Issum, founded to commemorate Alexander the Great’s victory over Darius III at Issus (333 bce).

İskenderun, seaport and chief city of İskenderun ilçe (district), Hatay il (province), southern Turkey. Located on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Iskenderun, it lies on or near the site of Alexandria ad Issum, founded to commemorate Alexander the Great’s victory over Darius III at Issus (333

Iskŭr River, longest (after the Danube) river in Bulgaria, formed south of Samokov in the Rila Mountains by its headstreams, the Beli (White) Iskŭr and Cherni (Black) Iskŭr. It cuts a 40-mile (65-km) gorge through the Balkan Mountains to bring the high basin of Sofia (1,800 feet [550 metres]) into

Eddie Cantor was an American comedian and star of vaudeville, burlesque, the legitimate stage, radio, and television. Cantor was cared for by his grandmother on New York City’s Lower East Side when he was orphaned at age two. From early childhood he clowned and sang for coins on street corners, and

Islamic State–Khorasan Province (ISKP), transnational jihad movement that is loosely affiliated with the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL; also called ISIS) and operates primarily, though not exclusively, in Afghanistan. Inspired by the rapid expansion of ISIL in 2014–15, disaffected

Vladimir Lenin: Formation of a revolutionary party of Vladimir Lenin: …in bringing out the newspaper Iskra (“The Spark”), which they hoped would unify the Russian Marxist groups that were scattered throughout Russia and western Europe into a cohesive Social-Democratic party.

Iskŭr River, longest (after the Danube) river in Bulgaria, formed south of Samokov in the Rila Mountains by its headstreams, the Beli (White) Iskŭr and Cherni (Black) Iskŭr. It cuts a 40-mile (65-km) gorge through the Balkan Mountains to bring the high basin of Sofia (1,800 feet [550 metres]) into

aesthetics: Marxist aesthetics: …Iskusstvo i obshchestvennaya zhizn (1912; Art and Social Life) is a kind of synthesis of early Marxist thought and attempts to recast the practices of art and criticism in a revolutionary mold. The ideology of “art for art’s sake,” Plekhanov argues, develops only in conditions of social decline when artist…

Senglea, town, one of the Three Cities (the others being Cospicua and Vittoriosa) of eastern Malta. Senglea lies on a small, narrow peninsula between French Creek to the west and Dockyard Creek to the east, just south of Valletta across Grand Harbour. In 1552 a fort was built on the peninsula,

Padre Island, barrier island, 113 miles (182 km) long and up to 3 miles (5 km) wide, lying in the Gulf of Mexico along the southeastern coast of Texas, U.S. It extends south from Corpus Christi to Port Isabel, just north of the Mexican border, and is separated from the mainland by Laguna Madre

Alcatraz Island, rocky island in San Francisco Bay, California, U.S. The island occupies an area of 22 acres (9 hectares) and is located 1.5 miles (2 km) offshore. The island had little vegetation and was a seabird habitat when it was explored in 1775 by Lieut. Juan Manuel de Ayala, who named it

Coiba Island, Central American island of Panama in the Pacific Ocean. Lying 15 miles (24 km) offshore and separated from the mainland by the Gulf of Montijo on the east and the Gulf of Chiriquí on the northwest, the island measures about 20 miles from north to south and 10 miles from east to west.

Culebra Island, island, Puerto Rico, 20 miles (30 km) east of Puerto Rico island and 15 miles west of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. The island fronts north on the Atlantic Ocean and south and west on Vieques Sound, which connects the Atlantic with the Caribbean Sea. About 7 miles (11 km) long and 2

Fuerteventura Island, island, one of the eastern Canary Islands, Las Palmas provincia (province), in the Canary Islands comunidad autónoma (autonomous community), Spain. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean, 65 miles (105 km) west of Cape Juby, Morocco. This volcanic island, the second largest of

José Francisco de Isla was a Spanish satirist and preacher noted for his novel known as Fray Gerundio. Isla showed intellectual promise early and entered the Jesuit order as a novice in 1719, studying at the University of Salamanca. He was named professor of sacred literature in 1727 and taught

Ometepe Island, island in southwestern Nicaragua, the largest island in Lake Nicaragua. Ometepe actually consists of two islands joined by a narrow isthmus 2 miles (3 km) in length. Their combined area is about 107 square miles (276 square km). The larger, northern one is 12 miles (19 km) from east

Coiba Island, Central American island of Panama in the Pacific Ocean. Lying 15 miles (24 km) offshore and separated from the mainland by the Gulf of Montijo on the east and the Gulf of Chiriquí on the northwest, the island measures about 20 miles from north to south and 10 miles from east to west.

Vieques Island, island and municipio (municipality), Puerto Rico. It lies 13 miles (21 km) east of the main island, fronting to the south on the Caribbean Sea and north on Vieques Sound, which connects the Caribbean with the Atlantic Ocean. Composed mostly of volcanic and granite intrusives, the

Fernandina Island, one of the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador, in the eastern Pacific Ocean, about 600 miles (965 km) west of Ecuador. Third largest of the islands, with an area of 245 sq miles (635 sq km), it is separated from Isabela Island by the Bolívar Strait. Its relief is dominated by a single

Martín García Island, island, historically a strategic control point in the estuary of Río de la Plata, near the mouth of the Uruguay and Paraná rivers, between Argentina and Uruguay. The island (0.7 square mile [2 square km]) is a part of Buenos Aires provincia (province), Argentina. In March 1814

Mona Island, island lying west of Puerto Rico. It is in the centre of the Mona Passage about 45 miles (70 km) west of Mayagüez. About 6 miles (10 km) long, 4 miles (6.5 km) wide, and 20 square miles (52 square km) in area, the island is a limestone plateau. There is little vegetation, though there

Pinta Island, one of the northernmost of the Galapagos Islands, in the eastern Pacific Ocean 600 miles (965 km) west of mainland Ecuador. It is an uninhabited island with an area of 20 square miles (52 square

Puná Island, island off the coast of southern Ecuador, at the head of the Gulf of Guayaquil, opposite the mouth of the Guayas River. It is flanked by two channels, the Jambelí Channel on the east and the Morro Channel on the west, and has an area of approximately 330 square miles (855 square km).

Latin American literature: The modern essay: …y la perspectiva postmoderna (1989; The Repeating Island), a worthy successor to the essayistic tradition sketched before.

San Cristóbal Island, one of the easternmost of the Galapagos Islands in the eastern Pacific Ocean. San Cristóbal Island lies approximately 600 miles (965 km) west of mainland Ecuador. It was originally named by English pirates for William Pitt, the Elder, 1st earl of Chatham. With an area of 195

Santa María Island, one of the southernmost Galapagos Islands, in the eastern Pacific Ocean about 600 miles (965 km) west of mainland Ecuador. Originally named for the British king Charles II, it is also known as Isla Floreana, but the official Ecuadoran name is Isla Santa María. The island, with

Taboga Island, island in the Bay of Panama, central Panama. Taboga and its small neighbour, Taboguilla Island, lie 11 miles (18 km) south of Panama City, with which they are connected by boat service. Taboga, about 2 miles (3 km) long and 1 mile (1.6 km) wide, is known for its pineapples and

José Francisco de Isla was a Spanish satirist and preacher noted for his novel known as Fray Gerundio. Isla showed intellectual promise early and entered the Jesuit order as a novice in 1719, studying at the University of Salamanca. He was named professor of sacred literature in 1727 and taught

Yemen: Unification of Yemen: The Islamic Reform Grouping (Iṣlāḥ), the main organized opposition to the unification regime since 1990, and the YSP both won strong minority representation. Holding virtually all the seats, the three parties formed a coalition government in May 1993, amid some hope that the political crisis had passed.

Islam, major world religion promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century ce. The Arabic term islām, literally “surrender,” illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islām) accepts surrender to the will of

Tahar Ben Jelloun: …latter was further employed in L’Islam expliqué aux enfants (2002; Islam Explained), written in response to the anti-Muslim sentiment that followed the September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States.

Cambodia: Ethnic groups: …early 21st century was the Cham-Malay group. Known in Cambodia as Khmer Islam or Western Cham, the Cham-Malay group also maintained a high degree of ethnic homogeneity and was discriminated against under the regime of Democratic Kampuchea. Receiving only slightly better treatment than the Khmer Islam during that period were…

India: Sher Shah and his successors: …was succeeded by his son Islam Shah (ruled 1545–53). Islam Shah, preeminently a soldier, was less successful as a ruler than his father. Palace intrigues and insurrections marred his reign. On his death his young son, Fīrūz, came to the Sūr throne but was murdered by his own maternal uncle,…

Islam, major world religion promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century ce. The Arabic term islām, literally “surrender,” illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam—that the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islām) accepts surrender to the will of

South Asian arts: Bangladesh: The poet-playwright Nazrul Islam followed the tradition of Tagore’s verse plays and dance operas. Inspired by left-wing ideology, he wrote for the People’s Theatre in East Bengal, championing the cause of the poor farmer. He dealt with psychological problems and inner tensions in his Shilpi (“The Artist”),…

Islamic arts: Islamic art under European influence and contemporary trends: …Rasem Badran, and the Bangladeshi Mazharul Islam. A unique message was transmitted by the visionary Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy, who, in eloquent and prophetic terms, urged that the traditional forms and techniques of vernacular architecture be studied and adapted to contemporary needs. Directly or indirectly, his work inspired many young…

Pillars of Islam, the five duties incumbent on every Muslim: shahādah, the Muslim profession of faith; ṣalāt, or prayer, performed in a prescribed manner five times each day; zakāt, the alms tax levied to benefit the poor and the needy; ṣawm, fasting during the month of Ramadan; and hajj, the major

Cat Stevens is a British singer-songwriter and philanthropist, particularly of Islamic charities. Steven Demetre Georgiou was born in London to parents Stavros Georgiou and Ingrid Wickman, who owned and operated a restaurant, the Moulin Rouge, above which the family lived. Georgiou; his elder

Pakistan, populous multiethnic country of South Asia. Having a predominately Indo-Iranian speaking population, Pakistan has historically and culturally been associated with its neighbours Iran, Afghanistan, and India. Since Pakistan and India achieved independence from British rule on August 14−15,

Anantnag, city, northwestern Jammu and Kashmir union territory, northern India. It lies about 30 miles (50 km) southeast of Srinagar, on the Jhelum River north of the Pir Panjal Range. Anantnag is an agricultural trade centre and the southern headquarters for navigation by large boats in the Vale

Islamabad, city, capital of Pakistan, on the Potwar Plateau, 9 miles (14 km) northeast of Rawalpindi, the former interim capital. The city’s site was chosen by a commission in 1959 after Karachi was found unsuitable as the capital. Construction began in 1961 with an effort to blend traditional

Khālid al-Islāmbūlī was an Egyptian radical, known as the assassin of Anwar Sadat. Born into a family of rural notables, he attended Egypt’s military academy and was assigned to the artillery corps as a lieutenant. Furious at the arrest of his brother, a leader of the Islamist opposition to Sadat,

Khālid al-Islāmbūlī was an Egyptian radical, known as the assassin of Anwar Sadat. Born into a family of rural notables, he attended Egypt’s military academy and was assigned to the artillery corps as a lieutenant. Furious at the arrest of his brother, a leader of the Islamist opposition to Sadat,

Islamic world, the complex of societies and cultures in which Muslims and their faith have been prevalent and socially dominant. Adherence to Islam is a global phenomenon: Muslims predominate in some 30 to 40 countries, from the Atlantic eastward to the Pacific and along a belt that stretches

Pakistan: The first administration of Benazir Bhutto: …Punjab was won by the Islamic Democratic Alliance (Islami Jamhoori Itihad [IJI]), led by Nawaz Sharif, a Punjabi businessman, who became the province’s chief minister.

Pakistan: The first administration of Benazir Bhutto: …Punjab was won by the Islamic Democratic Alliance (Islami Jamhoori Itihad [IJI]), led by Nawaz Sharif, a Punjabi businessman, who became the province’s chief minister.

Islāmic Development Bank, Muslim bank directed toward financing the economic and social development of members in accordance with the principles of the Sharīʿah (Islāmic sacred law). Conceived by the Organization of the Islāmic Conference in 1973, the bank was headquartered in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,

Abdullah II: Domestic policy: …Abdullah sought to restrain the Islamic Action Front, the political arm of the Muslim Brotherhood in Jordan and the country’s largest opposition group, and pushed electoral reforms that were intended to increase voting based on platform rather than personal or tribal interests.

Islamic architecture, building traditions of Muslim populations of the Middle East and elsewhere from the 7th century on. Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in religious buildings such as the mosque and madrasah. Early Islamic religious architecture, exemplified by Jerusalem’s Dome

Museum of Islamic Art, offshore museum in Doha, Qatar, located on the southern end of Doha Bay. It is noted for its vast collection of Islamic art spanning 1,300 years. The museum, which opened in 2008, was designed by the Pritzker Prize-winning Chinese American architect I.M. Pei, with an interior

Islamic arts, literary, performing, and visual arts of the vast populations of the Islamic world from the 7th century onward. Adherents of Islam and those living in Islamic settings have created such an immense variety of literatures, performing arts, visual arts, and music that it virtually defies

Jamaʿat-i Islami, religious party founded in British-controlled India (now Pakistan) in 1941 by Mawlana Abū al-Aʿlā al-Mawdūdī (1903–79). The party was established to reform society in accordance with the faith and drew its inspiration from the model of the prophet Muhammad’s original Muslim

Sarekat Islām, the first nationalist political party in Indonesia to gain wide popular support. Founded in 1912 the party originated as an association of those Muslim merchants who wanted to advance their economic interests in relation to Chinese merchants in Java, but the association became

Iran: Finance: …Iran (later reorganized as the Islamic Economy Organization and exempt from nationalization) was established in Tehrān, with branches throughout the country. Iran’s 10 banks are divided into three categories—commercial, industrial, and agricultural—but all are subject to the same regulations. In lieu of interest on loans, considered to be usury and…

Islāmic bath, public bathing establishment developed in countries under Islāmic rule that reflects the fusion of a primitive Eastern bath tradition and the elaborate Roman bathing process. A typical bath house consists of a series of rooms, each varying in temperature according to the height and

Islamic calendar, dating system used in the Islamic world for religious purposes. (Most countries now use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes.) It is based on a year of 12 months: Muḥarram, Ṣafar, Rabīʿ al-Awwal, Rabīʿ al-Thānī, Jumādā al-Awwal, Jumādā al-Thānī, Rajab, Shaʿbān, Ramaḍān (the

Islamic caste, any of the units of social stratification that developed among Muslims in India and Pakistan as a result of the proximity of Hindu culture. Most of the South Asian Muslims were recruited from the Hindu population; despite the egalitarian tenets of Islam, the Muslim converts persisted

Pakistan: Political process: Two other religious parties, the Assembly of Islamic Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Islām) and the Assembly of Pakistani Clergy (Jamīʿat ʿUlamāʾ-e Pakistan), have strong centres of support, the former in Karachi and the latter in the rural areas of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Council of Guardians: …Council and appointed by the Majles (parliament). The Council of Guardians reviews all legislation passed by the Majles to determine its constitutionality. If a majority of the council does not find a piece of legislation in compliance with the constitution or if a majority of the council’s Islamic canon lawyers…

Organization of the Islamic Cooperation, an Islamic organization established in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, in May 1971, following summits by Muslim heads of state and government in 1969 and by Muslim foreign ministers in 1970. The membership includes Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin,

al-Shabaab: …a militia affiliated with the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), a federation of local and clan-based Islamic courts that had been founded in southern Somalia in 2004 to combat the lawlessness and banditry afflicting the area since the collapse of the government of Mohamed Siad Barre in 1991. From about 2004…

Ibrahim al-Jaafari: …the mid-1960s he joined the Islamic Daʿwah Party, then an underground movement. After completing high school, he left Karbala to study medicine in the northern city of Mosul, where he obtained a medical degree in 1974. While in Mosul, he was given responsibility for the recruitment of Daʿwah members in…

Pakistan: The first administration of Benazir Bhutto: …Punjab was won by the Islamic Democratic Alliance (Islami Jamhoori Itihad [IJI]), led by Nawaz Sharif, a Punjabi businessman, who became the province’s chief minister.

Islāmic Development Bank, Muslim bank directed toward financing the economic and social development of members in accordance with the principles of the Sharīʿah (Islāmic sacred law). Conceived by the Organization of the Islāmic Conference in 1973, the bank was headquartered in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,

Iran: Finance: …Iran (later reorganized as the Islamic Economy Organization and exempt from nationalization) was established in Tehrān, with branches throughout the country. Iran’s 10 banks are divided into three categories—commercial, industrial, and agricultural—but all are subject to the same regulations. In lieu of interest on loans, considered to be usury and…

Afghanistan, multiethnic landlocked country located in the heart of south-central Asia. Lying along important trade routes connecting southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East, Afghanistan has long been a prize sought by empire builders, and for millennia great armies have attempted

Egyptian Islamic Jihad: …EIJ was largely overshadowed by al-Jamāʿah al-Islāmiyyah, which waged a far-bloodier campaign inside Egypt, killing numerous officials, civilians, and foreign tourists.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), militant group founded with the goal of liberating historical Palestine through armed struggle and by appealing to the region’s Islamic heritage. It was first formed in the Gaza Strip but also operates in the West Bank. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad, founded in

Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), Egyptian extremist organization that originated in the late 1970s and developed into a powerful force in the 1980s and 1990s. Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) allied with the al-Qaeda network in the late 1990s, and the two groups merged in 2001. EIJ coalesced out of a

sharia, the fundamental religious concept of Islam—namely, its law. The religious law of Islam is seen as the expression of God’s command for Muslims and, in application, constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon all Muslims by virtue of their religious belief. Known as the sharīʿah

Islamic arts: Islamic literatures: It would be almost impossible to make an exhaustive survey of Islamic literatures. There are so many works, of which hundreds of thousands are available only in manuscript, that even a very large team of scholars could scarcely master a…

Unani medicine, a traditional system of healing and health maintenance observed in South Asia. The origins of Unani medicine are found in the doctrines of the ancient Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen. As a field, it was later developed and refined through systematic experiment by the Arabs,

Sudan: The rise of Muslim fundamentalism: …of the party, renamed the Islamic National Front (NIF). Turābī methodically charted the Brotherhood and the NIF on a course of action designed to seize control of the Sudanese government despite the Muslim fundamentalists’ lack of popularity with the majority of the Sudanese people. Tightly disciplined, superbly organized, and inspired…

Iran: Deliberative bodies: …ordered the formation of the Committee to Determine the Expediency of the Islamic Order—consisting of several members from the Council of Guardians and several members appointed by the president—to arbitrate disagreements between the Majles and the Council of Guardians. The Assembly of Experts, a body of 88 clerics, was originally…

Islamic philosophy, doctrines of the philosophers of the 9th–12th century Islamic world who wrote primarily in Arabic. These doctrines combine Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. Islamic philosophy is related to but distinct from the theological doctrines and

Uzbekistan: Cultural life: …publishing ventures and through the Islamic Renaissance Party.

Tajikistan: Centralization and opposition sidelined: He accused the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRPT)—which under the peace agreement was one of the opposition groups entitled to a percentage of government posts—of extremism and began dismissing members of the party from their official positions. The party itself, however, remained legal in Tajikistan. Meanwhile, Rahmonov…

Afghanistan, multiethnic landlocked country located in the heart of south-central Asia. Lying along important trade routes connecting southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East, Afghanistan has long been a prize sought by empire builders, and for millennia great armies have attempted

Iran, a mountainous, arid, and ethnically diverse country of southwestern Asia. The country maintains a rich and distinctive cultural and social continuity dating back to the Achaemenian period, which began in 550 bce. Since 1979 it has become known for its unique brand of Islamic republic.

Mauritania, country on the Atlantic coast of Africa. Mauritania forms a geographic and cultural bridge between the North African Maghrib (a region that also includes Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) and the westernmost portion of sub-Saharan Africa. Culturally, it forms a transitional zone between

Pakistan, populous multiethnic country of South Asia. Having a predominately Indo-Iranian speaking population, Pakistan has historically and culturally been associated with its neighbours Iran, Afghanistan, and India. Since Pakistan and India achieved independence from British rule on August 14−15,

Iran: Political process: The Islamic Republic Party became the ruling political party at the outset of postrevolutionary Iran, but it subsequently proved to be too volatile, and Khomeini ordered it disbanded in 1987. The Muslim People’s Republic Party, which once claimed more than three million members, and its leader,…

Hamas, militant Palestinian nationalist and Islamist movement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip that is dedicated to the establishment of an independent Islamic state in historical Palestine. Founded in 1987, Hamas opposed the secular approach of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to the

Iranian Revolution, popular uprising in Iran in 1978–79 that resulted in the toppling of the monarchy on February 11, 1979, and led to the establishment of an Islamic republic. The 1979 revolution, which brought together Iranians across many different social groups, has its roots in Iran’s long

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), the most powerful branch of the Iranian armed forces, independent of Iran’s regular army and accountable only to the Office of the Supreme Leader. It was established by Ruhollah Khomeini, Iran’s first leader (1979–89), and strengthened under the presidency