computational aesthetics: History: In the early 1990s the International Society for Mathematical and Computational Aesthetics (IS-MCA) was founded, specializing in design with emphasis on functionality and aesthetics and attempting to be a bridge between science and art. By the beginning of the 21st century, computational aesthetics had become sufficiently established to sustain its…

International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT), organization founded in 1935 in Paris to aid in the solution of scientific and practical problems in blood transfusion, to facilitate the development of closer ties among those concerned with such problems, and to promote standardization of

International Society of Christian Endeavor, interdenominational organization for Protestant youth in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It was founded in 1881 by Francis Edward Clark, who served as president until 1927. Members of the society pledged to try to make some useful contribution to

Hare Krishna, popular name of a semimonastic Vaishnava Hindu organization founded in the United States in 1965 by A.C. Bhaktivedanta (Swami Prabhupada; 1896–1977). This movement is a Western outgrowth of the popular Bengali bhakti (devotional) yoga tradition, or Krishna Consciousness, which began

sociology: Academic status: Eventually in 1949 the International Sociological Association was established under the sponsorship of UNESCO, and Louis Wirth of the University of Chicago was elected its first president.

softball: …Fédération Internationale de Softball (International Softball Federation), which was formed in 1952, acts as liaison between more than 40 softball organizations of several countries. Headquarters are in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The federation coordinates international competition and regular regional and world championship tournaments for men and women. In 1996 a…

space exploration: Solar and space physics: …of space missions, named the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, that would be aimed at full investigation of the Sun-Earth connection. This program was responsible for the U.S. Wind (1994) and Polar (1996) spacecraft, the European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO; 1995) and Cluster (2000) missions, and the Japanese Geotail satellite…

space law, the body of regulations in international law that governs conduct in and related to areas of space above Earth’s lower atmosphere. The evolution of space law began with U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s introduction of the concept into the United Nations in 1957, in connection with

International Space Station (ISS), space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely by the United States and Russia, with assistance and components from a multinational consortium. The project, which began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical problems. Originally

squash rackets: …varieties of game are played: softball (the so-called “British,” or “international,” version) and hardball (the “American” version). In softball, which is the standard game internationally, the game is played with a softer, slower ball on the kind of wide, tall court shown in the accompanying diagram. The ball stays in…

International Standard Book Number (ISBN), in bibliography, 10- or 13-digit number assigned before publication to a book or edition thereof, which identifies the work’s national, geographic, language, or other convenient group and its publisher, title, edition, and volume number. The ISBN is part

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), in bibliography, eight-digit number that provides a concise and unambiguous identification code for serial publications. Unlike the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), this number’s only significance is its unique identification of a particular

International Organization for Standardization (ISO), specialized international organization concerned with standardization in all technical and nontechnical fields except electrical and electronic engineering (the responsibility of the International Electrotechnical Commission [IEC]). Founded in

telecommunications network: Open systems interconnection: Different communication requirements necessitate different network solutions, and these different network protocols can create significant problems of compatibility when networks are interconnected with one another. In order to overcome some of these interconnection problems, the open systems interconnection (OSI) was approved in…

Jackson Haines: Although his skating style (called International) was rejected in the United States and England, he became a great popular success in Sweden, Austria, and elsewhere on the Continent. In Vienna, the world’s “waltz capital” in the 19th century, he astutely offered instruction in waltzing on ice. Skating schools founded or…

International Style, architectural style that developed in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and ’30s and became the dominant tendency in Western architecture during the middle decades of the 20th century. The most common characteristics of International Style buildings are rectilinear

the Byrds: …with his previous group, the International Submarine Band, was a Byrd for only five months in 1968. Nevertheless, Parsons’s Southern background and his passion for rural American music, including gospel and rhythm and blues, deeply informed the country sound of Sweetheart of the Rodeo, a record so controversial it alienated…

comet: Spacecraft exploration of comets: …Earth orbit and the third, ISEE-3, positioned in a heliocentric orbit between Earth and the Sun, studying the solar wind in Earth’s vicinity.

Cynthia May Westover Alden: The International Sunshine Society, incorporated in 1900, was headed by Alden for the rest of her life. In 1902 the society established a sanatorium in Bensonhurst for blind children (in 1917 it became Harbor Hospital), and in 1905 a nursery and a kindergarten for blind children…

Rudolf Wolf: …groups, which are known as Wolf’s sunspot numbers.

surfing: Professional surfing: (The International Surfing Association [ISA] superseded the federation in 1976.) In 1982 the General Association of International Sports Federations recognized the ISA as the world’s governing body of surfing. Thirteen years later, in 1995, the International Olympic Committee granted the ISA provisional recognition. The IOC confirmed…

Eileen Agar: …her Surrealist objects for the International Surrealists Exhibition at the New Burlington Galleries that summer. She was the only British woman included in the show.

International System of Units (SI), international decimal system of weights and measures derived from and extending the metric system of units. Adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960, it is abbreviated SI in all languages. Rapid advances in science and

calorie: …of heat energy, is the International Table calorie (IT calorie), originally defined as 1860 international watt-hour. It is equal to 4.1868 joules and is used in engineering steam tables.

table tennis: History: …de Tennis de Table (International Table Tennis Federation) was founded in 1926, the founding members being England, Sweden, Hungary, India, Denmark, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Wales. By the mid-1990s more than 165 national associations were members.

archery: History: …with the founding of the Fédération Internationale de Tir à l’Arc (FITA; Federation of International Target Archery) in Paris.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), specialized agency of the United Nations that was created to encourage international cooperation in all forms of telecommunication. Its activities include maintaining order in the allocation of radio frequencies, setting standards on technical and

Intelsat, company that provides satellite communication services. Intelsat owns more than 50 communications satellites and the ground stations from which they are controlled. Its headquarters are in Luxembourg. Intelsat was founded as a public-private consortium in 1964 by the telecommunication

Intelsat, company that provides satellite communication services. Intelsat owns more than 50 communications satellites and the ground stations from which they are controlled. Its headquarters are in Luxembourg. Intelsat was founded as a public-private consortium in 1964 by the telecommunication

fax: Analog telephone facsimile: In 1974 the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT) issued its first worldwide fax standard, known as Group 1 fax. Group 1 fax machines were capable of transmitting a one-page document in about six minutes with a resolution of 4 lines per mm using an analog signal…

telegraph: Development of the telegraph industry: …applications of the telegraph, the International Telegraph Union was formed in 1865 to establish standards for use in international communication. In the following year the first successful transatlantic cables were completed.

ITT Corporation, former American telecommunications company that grew into a successful conglomerate corporation before its breakup in 1995. ITT was founded in 1920 by Sosthenes Behn and his brother Hernand Behn as a holding company for their Caribbean-based telephone and telegraph companies; it

tennis: …to rules sanctioned by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the world governing body of the sport.

Rhode Island: Sports and recreation: The International Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum (1954) is housed in the Newport Casino building. The Newport Casino was built in 1880 as a clubhouse (the name derives from casina, an Italian term for a summerhouse, rather than any association with gambling) and was the…

fusion reactor: Magnetic confinement: …a planned new experiment, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) to be constructed at Cadarache, France. This is a very large experiment that will investigate both the physics of an ignited plasma and reactor technology. The large cost of the device has encouraged international collaboration in its design and funding,…

Paris Observatory: …houses the headquarters of the International Time Bureau, which standardizes the time determinations of the world’s observatories. In 1926 the solar observatory at Meudon, on the outskirts of Paris, was taken over by the Paris Observatory. A radio astronomy station is maintained at Nançay, about 160 km (100 miles) south…

ship: Design of the hull: …employed values standardized by the International Towing Tank Conference.

international trade, economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets and clothing; capital goods, such as machinery; and raw materials and food. Other transactions involve services, such as travel services and

industrial design: American hegemony and challenges from abroad: Japan’s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), formed in 1949, sent Japanese industrial designers for study abroad in an effort to upgrade the quality of the country’s products, which were considered, in the immediate postwar era, to be cheap imitations of Western products. Under this…

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, international agreement adopted in March 1973 to regulate worldwide commercial trade in wild animal and plant species. The goal of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is to ensure that international trade does

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, international agreement adopted in March 1973 to regulate worldwide commercial trade in wild animal and plant species. The goal of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is to ensure that international trade does

triathlon: In 1989 the International Triathlon Union (ITU), the sport’s official governing body, was founded in Avignon, France, with the mission to promote the sport’s global appeal. The ITU hosts an annual World Championship.

graphic design: The International Typographic Style: After World War II, designers in Switzerland and Germany codified Modernist graphic design into a cohesive movement called Swiss Design, or the International Typographic Style. These designers sought a neutral and objective approach that emphasized rational planning and de-emphasized the subjective, or…

organized labour: Origins of craft unionism: …renaming in 1869 as the International Typographical Union—a designation that became common in North American unionism.

Roswell incident: In 1992 the International UFO Museum and Research Center opened in Roswell, and since 1996 Roswell has been the site of an annual UFO festival.

International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), astronomical research satellite built in the 1970s as a cooperative project of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Science and Engineering Research Council of the United Kingdom, and the European Space Agency (ESA). Launched

World Cancer Day: The International Union Against Cancer (UICC), an organization dedicated to increasing global cancer awareness, coordinates World Cancer Day and is supported in this effort by WHO and other international organizations. World Cancer Day serves as a formal launching point for the declaration of new themes and…

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), network of environmental organizations founded as the International Union for the Protection of Nature in October 1948 in Fontainebleau, France, to promote nature conservation and the ecologically sustainable use of natural resources. It

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), network of environmental organizations founded as the International Union for the Protection of Nature in October 1948 in Fontainebleau, France, to promote nature conservation and the ecologically sustainable use of natural resources. It

Pan-American Union, Organization formed in 1890 to promote cooperation among the countries of Latin America and the U.S. It was established (as the International Union of American Republics) at the first Pan-American conference, which was called by U.S. secretary of state James Blaine in order to

geoid: Earth dimensions—radius, mass, and density: …years of satellite observations, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics adopted the Geodetic Reference System 1967, defining aequatorial, MG, and J2, o. Minor revisions to the numerical values were made in 1983. The revised values

Anthropocene Epoch: …Anthropocene Working Group of the International Union of Geologic Sciences (IUGS) voted to recommend the Anthropocene as a formal geologic epoch at the 35th International Geological Congress. In order for this interval to be made official, it first must be adopted by the IUGS and the International Commission on Stratigraphy.

alcohol: Nomenclature: …at a meeting of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in Paris in 1957. Using the IUPAC system, the name for an alcohol uses the -ol suffix with the name of the parent alkane, together with a number to give the location of the hydroxyl group. The…

United Automobile Workers (UAW), North American industrial union of automotive and other vehicular workers, headquartered in Detroit, Mich., and representing workers in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. The creation of the United Automobile Workers resulted from attempts made by the

International Unit (IU), in pharmacology, quantity of a substance, such as a vitamin, hormone, or toxin, that produces a specified effect when tested according to an internationally accepted biological procedure. For certain substances, the IU has been identified with a weight of a particular

vegetarianism: The 17th through 19th centuries: …Bible Christian sect, and the International Vegetarian Union was founded tentatively in 1889 and more enduringly in 1908.

Tatum O’Neal: …Plummer and Anthony Hopkins in International Velvet (1978), a sequel to National Velvet (1944).

weightlifting: History: …the International Olympic Committee, the International Weightlifting Federation (Fédération Haltérophile Internationale; FHI) was formed to regularize events and supervise international competition. By 1928 the one- and two-hand lifts of earlier Games had given way to only two-hand lifts: the snatch, the clean and jerk, and the clean and press (described…

International Whaling Commission (IWC), an intergovernmental organization that regulates whaling, a competitive industry based on the hunting of a common global resource. The commission was created after World War II by the Allied Powers, who were eager to increase fat and meat supplies but noted

Dame Margery Corbett Ashby: …International Woman Suffrage Alliance (renamed International Alliance of Women in 1926).

cricket: Women’s cricket: The International Women’s Cricket Council was formed in 1958 by Australia, England, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and South Africa and later included India, Denmark, and several West Indian islands. A World Cup was instituted in 1973, two years ahead of men’s cricket, and England and Australia…

International Women’s Day (IWD), day (March 8) honouring the achievements of women and promoting women’s rights. A national holiday in numerous countries, it has been sponsored by the United Nations (UN) since 1975. International Women’s Day (IWD) grew out of efforts in the early 20th century to

International Women’s Health Coalition (IWHC), international organization, founded in 1984, that promotes sexual and reproductive rights and health among women and girls worldwide, especially in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The IWHC advocates for national and international policies that benefit

May Day, day commemorating the historic struggles and gains made by workers and the labour movement, observed in many countries on May 1. In the United States and Canada a similar observance, known as Labor Day, occurs on the first Monday of September. In 1889 an international federation of

First International, federation of workers’ groups that, despite ideological divisions within its ranks, had a considerable influence as a unifying force for labour in Europe during the latter part of the 19th century. The First International was founded under the name of International Working

Labour and Socialist International: …at Vienna and formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties, also known as the Vienna Union, with the object of preparing the ground for an all-embracing International. In 1922 delegates from the Second and Third Internationals and the Vienna Union met in Berlin to explore the conditions of common…

yacht: Racing clubs: …in the founding of the International Yacht Racing Union (IYRU) in 1907.

biodiversity: Counting species: …Nations named 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity (IYB)—a yearlong celebration intended to raise public awareness about the importance of biodiversity and to reinforce conservation efforts. Many of the conservation goals promoted by the IYB have resurfaced periodically in later United Nations awareness campaigns—such as the International Year of…

Antarctica: Post-IGY research: …worldwide projects, such as the International Years of the Quiet Sun (1964–65), the International Biological Programme (1964–74), and the World Climate Research Programme (begun in 1980). It also advises the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

basketball: …Association (YMCA) Training School (now Springfield College), Springfield, Massachusetts, where Naismith was an instructor in physical education.

youth hostel: The International Youth Hostel Federation was formed in 1932 to coordinate activities of the various national youth hostel associations and to facilitate international travel by members; by 1980 its membership included national federations in 50 countries. National organizations regularly publish handbooks describing hostel locations and facilities.

First International, federation of workers’ groups that, despite ideological divisions within its ranks, had a considerable influence as a unifying force for labour in Europe during the latter part of the 19th century. The First International was founded under the name of International Working

Fourth International, a multinational body composed of Trotskyist organizations that was first formed in opposition to the policies of the Stalin-dominated Third International, or Comintern. The idea of a Fourth International was first presented in the late 1920s by various opponents of the Soviet

Labour and Socialist International (LSI), organization in existence from 1923 until the advent of World War II that defined itself in its constitution as “a union of such parties as accept the principles of the economic emancipation of the workers from capitalist domination and the establishment of

Second International, federation of socialist parties and trade unions that greatly influenced the ideology, policy, and methods of the European labour movement from the last decade of the 19th century to the beginning of World War I. The Second International was founded at a congress in Paris in

Socialist International (SI), association of national socialist parties that advocates a democratic form of socialism. After World War II the reinstitution of an international federation of working-class parties took place in gradual stages. First, an information and liaison office was established

L’Internationale, former official socialist and communist song. It was the anthem of the First, Second, and Third Internationals and, from 1918 to 1944, the national anthem of the Soviet Union. About 1871 a Parisian transport worker, Eugène Pottier, wrote the words (as a poem), which begin,

Third International, association of national communist parties founded in 1919. Though its stated purpose was the promotion of world revolution, the Comintern functioned chiefly as an organ of Soviet control over the international communist movement. The Comintern emerged from the three-way split

international relations: Foreign policy and international systems: …units of the international system, international-system analysis is concerned with the structure of the system, the interactions between its units, and the implications for peace and war, or cooperation and conflict, of the existence of different types of states. The term interactions suggests challenge and response, give and take, move…

Berlin International Film Festival, one of the world’s largest film festivals, held annually in Berlin in February. The festival was the idea of Oscar Martay, a film officer in the U.S. military who was stationed in West Berlin after World War II. In 1950 he formed a committee that included members

ING Group NV, global financial institution of Dutch origin that provides services in banking, insurance, and asset management. It is the Netherlands’ largest financial services company. Headquarters are in Amsterdam. ING Group was created as Internationale Nederlanden Groep (“International

canoeing: History: …organization was reconstituted as the International Canoe Federation in 1946.

Situationist International (SI), group of artists, writers, and social critics (1957–72) that aimed to eliminate capitalism through the revolutionization of everyday life. Instead of focusing on traditional sites of economic and social change, such as the factory, the Situationist International

Otto Rank: …to 1924 he edited the Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse (“International Journal of Psychoanalysis”). In 1919 he founded a publishing house devoted to the publication of psychoanalytic works and directed it until 1924.

L’Internationale, former official socialist and communist song. It was the anthem of the First, Second, and Third Internationals and, from 1918 to 1944, the national anthem of the Soviet Union. About 1871 a Parisian transport worker, Eugène Pottier, wrote the words (as a poem), which begin,

20th-century international relations: U.S. vision of reconstruction: …reconstruction in terms of Wilsonian internationalism but were determined to avoid the mistakes that resulted after 1918 in inflation, tariffs, debts, and reparations. In 1943 the United States sponsored the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration to distribute food and medicine to the stricken

eugenics: Eugenics organizations and legislation: …to the activities of “the Internationalists,” a group of prominent American leaders in business, education, publishing, and government. One core member of this group, the New York lawyer Madison Grant, aroused considerable pro-eugenic interest through his best-selling book The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Beginning in 1920, a…

ICANN: These internationalized domain names (IDNs) initially included Chinese, Arabic, and Cyrillic characters in addition to the long-serving Latin letters A to Z, Arabic numerals 0 to 9, and punctuation symbols such as hyphens. Eventually, IDNs will recognize almost 100,000 characters in many different languages. The first…

L’Internationale, former official socialist and communist song. It was the anthem of the First, Second, and Third Internationals and, from 1918 to 1944, the national anthem of the Soviet Union. About 1871 a Parisian transport worker, Eugène Pottier, wrote the words (as a poem), which begin,

Internet, a system architecture that has revolutionized mass communication, mass media, and commerce by allowing various computer networks around the world to interconnect. Sometimes referred to as a “network of networks,” the Internet emerged in the United States in the 1970s but did not become

ICANN: …maintain ultimate stewardship of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which coordinates some of the key technical underpinnings of the Internet, such as managing the DNS root. IANA also controls specific TLDs, such as .arpa. ICANN manages IANA under contract with the DOC’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration, to which…

Iran: Nuclear deal falters: …was accompanied by an unprecedented Internet blackout.

browser, software that allows a computer user to find and view information on the Internet. Web browsers interpret the HTML tags in downloaded documents and format the displayed data according to a set of standard style rules. When British scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, he

dot-com bubble, period (1995–2000) of large, rapid, and ultimately unsustainable increases in the valuation of stock market shares in Internet service and technology companies, then commonly referred to as “dot-com” companies, including fledgling businesses, or “start-ups,” with little or no record

casino: …premiered as the first “virtual” casino. Competitors, including traditional casinos, soon offered their own online gambling games, which are run by computer programs. Typically, customers must deposit accounts with the operators of such casinos in order to wager (most American credit card companies refuse to validate online gambling transactions). By…

chess: Correspondence chess: The Internet Chess Club, founded in 1992 and incorporated in 1995, allows computer-literate chess fans worldwide to play one another at various time limits. More than 15,000 players from 55 countries had played at least one game in the first four years. On a typical day…

ICANN, nonprofit private organization incorporated in California on September 18, 1998, and tasked with taking over from the U.S. government various administrative duties associated with running the Internet. ICANN’s functions include overseeing the top-level domains (TLDs; e.g., .com, .net, .org,

cybercrime: Internet fraud: Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) reported that more than $54 million dollars had been lost through a variety of fraud schemes; this represented a threefold increase over estimated losses of $17 million in 2001. The annual losses grew in subsequent years, reaching $125 million in…

domain name, address of a computer, organization, or other entity on the Internet. Domain names are typically in a three-level “server.organization.type” format. The top level, called the top-level domain, has usually denoted the type of organization, such as “com” (for commercial sites) or “edu”

netiquette, guidelines for courteous communication in the online environment. It includes proper manners for sending e-mail, conversing online, and so on. Much like traditional etiquette, which provides rules of conduct in social situations, the purpose of netiquette is to help construct and