intendant, administrative official under the ancien régime in France who served as an agent of the king in each of the provinces, or généralités. From about 1640 until 1789, the intendancies were the chief instrument used to achieve administrative unification and centralization under the French

China: Unification: Within these circuits, intendants were charged with overseeing the civil administration. Below these intendants were the actual administrators. These included prefects, whose positions were divided into several grades according to an area’s size and importance. Below the prefects there were district magistrates (subprefects) in charge of areas corresponding…

intendente, royal official appointed by the 18th-century kings of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Modeled after the French intendants, the intendentes were to serve as instruments of royal centralization and administrative reform but were frequently resisted as conflicting with local privileges. In

Argonne National Laboratory: …Advanced Photon Source (APS), the Intense Pulsed Neutron Source (IPNS), the Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System (ATLAS), and the High-Voltage Electron Microscope- (HVEM-) Tandem Facility—have been designated official U.S. Department of Energy National User Facilities.

radiation measurement: Radiographic films: …sandwich the photographic emulsion between intensifier screens that consist of thin layers of light-emitting phosphors of high atomic number, such as calcium tungstate, cesium iodide, or rare earth phosphors. If an X ray interacts in the screen, the light that is produced darkens the film in the immediate vicinity through…

intension and extension, in logic, correlative words that indicate the reference of a term or concept: “intension” indicates the internal content of a term or concept that constitutes its formal definition; and “extension” indicates its range of applicability by naming the particular objects that

analytic philosophy: Quine: …to what he calls “intensional entities.” Among such entities are many items that analytic philosophers had thought they could talk about without difficulty, such as meanings, propositions, and the properties—attributed to statements—of being necessarily true or possibly true. Because he did not accept the existence of entities that did…

history of logic: Leibniz: …in what is called an “intensional” rather than an “extensional” logic—one whose terms stand for properties or concepts rather than for the things having these properties. Leibniz’ basic notion of the truth of a judgment was that the concepts making up the predicate were “included in” the concept of the…

sound intensity, amount of energy flowing per unit time through a unit area that is perpendicular to the direction in which the sound waves are travelling. Sound intensity may be measured in units of energy or work—e.g., microjoules (10-6 joule) per second per square centimetre—or in units of

painting: Colour: …attributes of hue, tone, and intensity. Red, yellow, and blue are the basic hues from which all others on the chromatic scale can be made by mixtures. These three opaque hues are the subtractive pigment primaries and should not be confused with the behaviour of the additive triads and mixtures…

Robert Hanbury Brown: …thus developing the technique of intensity interferometry. Brown and Twiss set up an intensity interferometer at Narrabri in New South Wales, Australia, for the measuring of hot stars. From 1964 to 1981 Brown was a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of Sydney. He later served as president…

sound: Dynamic range of the ear: …can be observed, called the intensity just noticeable difference, is about one decibel (further reinforcing the value of the decibel intensity scale). One decibel corresponds to an absolute energy variation of a factor of about 1.25. Thus, the minimum observable change in the intensity of a sound wave is greater…

human nervous system: Theories of pain: There have always been two theories of the sensation of pain, a quantitative, or intensity, theory and a stimulus-specific theory. According to the former, pain results from excessive stimulation (e.g., excessive heat or cold or excessive damage to the tissues). This theory…

intensive agriculture, in agricultural economics, system of cultivation using large amounts of labour and capital relative to land area. Large amounts of labour and capital are necessary to the application of fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to growing crops, and capital is

Janet Frame: Intensive Care (1970) combines a story of thwarted love with a dystopian tale of a society that eliminates its weakest members. Her later novels include Daughter Buffalo (1972), an intricately structured work fixated on death; Living in the Maniototo (1979), a surreal exploration of the…

intensive care unit, hospital facility for care of critically ill patients at a more intensive level than is needed by other patients. Staffed by specialized personnel, the intensive care unit contains a complex assortment of monitors and life-support equipment that can sustain life in once-fatal

intensive agriculture, in agricultural economics, system of cultivation using large amounts of labour and capital relative to land area. Large amounts of labour and capital are necessary to the application of fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to growing crops, and capital is

rent: The classical economic view: …was pushed to the “intensive margin” through more intensive use of the more fertile land. As long as the additional cost of cultivation was less than the addition to the value of the product, it paid to apply more labour and capital to any given piece of land until…

intention, (Latin: intentio), in scholastic logic and psychology, a concept used to describe a mode of being or relation. In knowing, the mind is said to “intend” or “tend toward” its object, and a thing as known, or in the knowing mind, has “intentional being.” Intention may mean either the mind

infancy: …thus begin to show greater intentionality, and he eventually begins to invent new actions in a form of trial-and-error experimentation. By the 18th month the child has begun trying to solve problems involving physical objects by mentally imagining certain events and outcomes, rather than by simple physical trial-and-error experimentation.

crime: Intention: One of the most-important general principles of criminal law is that an individual normally cannot be convicted of a crime without having intended to commit the act in question. With few exceptions, the individual does not need to know that the act itself is…

cerebellar ataxia: Manifestations of ataxia and other symptoms: …shaking during any movement) or intention tremor (involuntary shaking during purposeful movement). In both forms of tremor, shaking disappears when the muscles are at rest. Cerebellar damage can also cause a speech disturbance called dysarthria, in which words become slurred and difficult to understand. Dysarthria tends to be a major…

baseball: Pitching with men on base: The pitcher will issue an intentional walk, in which the batter is awarded first base. This is done for several tactical reasons: (1) to avoid a batter that is deemed particularly dangerous, (2) to set up a double play opportunity if first base is open with runners on base and…

intentional fallacy, term used in 20th-century literary criticism to describe the problem inherent in trying to judge a work of art by assuming the intent or purpose of the artist who created it. Introduced by W.K. Wimsatt, Jr., and Monroe C. Beardsley in The Verbal Icon (1954), the approach was a

baseball: Pitching with men on base: The pitcher will issue an intentional walk, in which the batter is awarded first base. This is done for several tactical reasons: (1) to avoid a batter that is deemed particularly dangerous, (2) to set up a double play opportunity if first base is open with runners on base and…

baseball: Pitching with men on base: The pitcher will issue an intentional walk, in which the batter is awarded first base. This is done for several tactical reasons: (1) to avoid a batter that is deemed particularly dangerous, (2) to set up a double play opportunity if first base is open with runners on base and…

intentionality, in phenomenology, the characteristic of consciousness whereby it is conscious of something—i.e., its directedness toward an object. The concept of intentionality enables the phenomenologist to deal with the immanent-transcendent problem—i.e., the relation between what is within

intentionality, in modern literary theory, the study of authorial intention in a literary work and its corresponding relevance to textual interpretation. With the ascendancy of New Criticism after World War I, much of the debate on intentionality addressed whether information external to the text

genocide: Criticisms of the genocide convention: The so-called “intentionality clause” of the convention’s definition of genocide—the part that mentions the “intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group”—also is problematic. Two of the most common objections are that such intent can be difficult to establish and…

Oscar Wilde: Intentions (1891), consisting of previously published essays, restated his aesthetic attitude toward art by borrowing ideas from the French poets Théophile Gautier and Charles Baudelaire and the American painter James McNeill Whistler. In the same year, two volumes of stories and fairy tales also appeared,…

Inter Milan, Italian professional football (soccer) team based in Milan. Inter Milan is the only Italian club never to have been relegated to a league below the country’s top division, Serie A. Inter was formed in 1908 by a breakaway group of players from the Milan Cricket and Football Club (now

Gregory XIII: …24, 1582, in the bull Inter gravissimas (“In the gravest concern”), advanced the date by 10 days (October 4 was to be followed by October 15 that year) and relied on a new method of calculating leap years. Although the reform was welcomed by such astronomers as Johannes Kepler and…

Lionel Messi: Club play: In 2023 Messi joined Inter Miami of Major League Soccer.

Inter Milan, Italian professional football (soccer) team based in Milan. Inter Milan is the only Italian club never to have been relegated to a league below the country’s top division, Serie A. Inter was formed in 1908 by a breakaway group of players from the Milan Cricket and Football Club (now

property law: Concurrent individual owners: …joint tenants conveys his moiety inter vivos (e.g., through a living trust), the conveyance destroys the survivorship interest of his cotenants so far as that moiety is concerned. The conveyee takes not as a joint tenant but as a tenant in common with the other tenants. In tenancy in common,…

20th-century international relations: Allied politics and reparations: …the Rhine-Ruhr complex through the Inter-Allied Control Commission for Factories and Mines (MICUM) and a Franco-Belgian directorate for the railroads. The Allied Rhineland Commission (Britain dissenting) seized all executive, legislative, and judicial power in the occupied territories, expelled 16,000 uncooperative German officials (and more than 100,000 persons in all), and…

Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard: …that year, he organized the Inter-Allied Independent Bomber Force, a force of RAF heavy bombers to raid targets in Germany.

20th-century international relations: The weapon of morale: …into the hands of an Inter-Allied Propaganda Commission in 1918. The Allies also, especially after 1917, identified themselves with such universal principles as democracy and national self-determination, while the German war effort had only a narrow national appeal. The most important target of propaganda was the United States. In the…

origins of agriculture: Economics, politics, and agriculture: An Inter-American Coffee Agreement, signed in 1940, assigned export quotas to producer countries for shipment to the United States and other consuming countries and was effective during World War II. Other commodity agreements met with very limited success.

Belize: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing: (Earlier, in 2004, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights had determined that, in opening this land for logging, the Belizean government had violated the rights of the Maya in the southern part of the country by denying them secure land tenure.)

Alliance for Progress: The Inter-American Committee on the Alliance for Progress (CIAP) was created in 1963 to serve as the coordinating agent between the international financial community and the countries involved and to review the economic policies and plans of each country to determine the need for and availability…

Pan-American conferences: The Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace, held in 1936 at the request of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, at Buenos Aires, adopted a draft treaty for the peaceful resolution of conflicts between American states; conferences held in 1938 (at Lima), 1945 (at Chapultepec in Mexico…

Costa Rica: Costa Rica in the 21st century: …an advisory opinion from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights regarding same-sex marriage—which was not recognized in Costa Rica—and transgender rights. As a signatory to the American Convention on Human Rights (1969), Costa Rica was bound to abide by the court’s ruling. When the court ruled in January 2018 that…

Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), international organization founded in 1959 by 20 governments in North and South America to finance economic and social development in the Western Hemisphere. The largest charter subscribers were Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, and the United States.

map: World War II and after: Among other collaborations, the Inter-American Geodetic Survey, in which the U.S. Army provides instruction and logistic support for mapping, was organized. Although this cooperation primarily involved Latin-American countries, similar arrangements were made with individual countries in other parts of the world. Cooperation and exchange of data in hydrographic surveys,…

Monterrey: History: …develop rapidly, particularly after the Inter-American Highway was begun in 1930.

Inter-American Regional Organization of Workers, Latin-American labour union federation that was established in 1951 as a regional organization for the Latin-American members of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which had been founded in 1949 primarily by the American F

Organization of American States: History: …formal mutual-defense pact called the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance. By 1948, with the start of the Cold War, it had become apparent that a stronger security system was needed in the Western Hemisphere to meet the perceived threat of international communism. At the urging of the United States, the…

Miss America, competition held annually in which young women representing each of the U.S. states, as well as the District of Columbia, compete by demonstrating a range of skills such as leadership, poise, and artistic talent. The winner, determined by a panel of judges, is awarded the title Miss

Indus Waters Treaty: The Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948, required India to provide water to the Pakistani parts of the basin in return for annual payments. This too was intended as a stopgap measure, with further talks to take place in hopes of reaching a permanent solution.

International Maritime Organization (IMO), United Nations (UN) specialized agency created to develop international treaties and other mechanisms on maritime safety; to discourage discriminatory and restrictive practices in international trade and unfair practices by shipping concerns; and to reduce

Iain Duncan Smith: …Duncan Smith helped found the Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China, an international group focusing on issues involving the Asian country. The following year he was sanctioned by China, accused of spreading “lies and disinformation” about alleged human rights abuses in Xinjiang.

Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), international organization of parliaments of sovereign states established in 1889 in Paris to promote representative democracy and world peace. The Nobel Prize for Peace was awarded eight times to leading personalities of the IPU in the organization’s early years

Pakistan: Hesitant rejection of Islamist militants: The Pakistani military’s Inter-Service Intelligence Directorate (ISI) became the main conduit of the country’s support of the Afghan mujahideen fighters based there in their conflict with the Soviet forces in Afghanistan. Such assistance continued following the withdrawal of Moscow’s forces in the late 1980s, and the ISI was…

Bruce Alberts: Alberts was cochair of the InterAcademy Council (2000–09), a body composed of the presidents of many major scientific organizations from around the world. The council advised both government bodies and private companies on issues related to science. Alberts resigned as NAS president in 2005, having served for two terms. He…

electron tube: Klystrons: …is referred to as the interaction space, or gap. When the electrons traverse this space, they are subjected to RF potentials at a frequency determined by the resonant frequency of the buncher cavity and the input-signal frequency. The amplitude of the RF voltage between the grids is determined by the…

particle accelerator: Colliding-beam storage rings: The rings intersect at “interaction regions,” where the beams collide. In other cases the two beams are composed of particles of opposite charge (e.g., electrons and positrons, or protons and antiprotons). Such beams circulate in opposite directions in the same vacuum chamber, guided by the same magnets. The particles…

electron tube: Klystrons: …is referred to as the interaction space, or gap. When the electrons traverse this space, they are subjected to RF potentials at a frequency determined by the resonant frequency of the buncher cavity and the input-signal frequency. The amplitude of the RF voltage between the grids is determined by the…

animal social behaviour: Social behaviour is defined by interaction, not by how organisms are distributed in space. Clumping of individuals is not a requirement for social behaviour, although it does increase opportunities for interaction. When a lone female moth emits a bouquet of pheromones to attract male potential mates, she is engaging in…

community ecology: Guilds and interaction webs: Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which exploit the same kinds of resources in comparable ways. The name “guild” emphasizes the fact that these groups are like associations of craftsmen who employ similar techniques in plying their trade. Guilds may…

pharmaceutical industry: Drug interactions: Drug interactions occur when one drug alters the pharmacological effect of another drug. The pharmacological effect of one or both drugs may be increased or decreased, or a new and unanticipated adverse effect may be produced. Drug interactions may result from pharmacokinetic interactions…

fundamental force, in physics, any of the four basic forces—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak—that govern how objects or particles interact and how certain particles decay. All the known forces of nature can be traced to these fundamental forces. The fundamental forces are

animal social behaviour: Social behaviour is defined by interaction, not by how organisms are distributed in space. Clumping of individuals is not a requirement for social behaviour, although it does increase opportunities for interaction. When a lone female moth emits a bouquet of pheromones to attract male potential mates, she is engaging in…

interactionism, in Cartesian philosophy and the philosophy of mind, those dualistic theories that hold that mind and body, though separate and distinct substances, causally interact. Interactionists assert that a mental event, as when John Doe wills to kick a brick wall, can be the cause of a

computer: Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX: …to promote the idea of interactive computing as an alternative to batch processing. Batch processing was the normal mode of operating computers at the time: a user handed a deck of punched cards to an operator, who fed them to the machine, and an hour or more later the printed…

electronic game: Interactive fiction: …of games, usually called “interactive fiction,” that boasted a new narrative structure. Such games shaped the player’s experience with descriptions of rooms, characters, and items and a story that evolved in response to the player’s choices. In Adventure this meant wandering through a dungeon to collect items and defeat…

Michael Stonebraker: …tenure at Berkeley, he invented INGRES (Interactive Graphics and Retrieval System) in 1974 and Postgres (Post INGRES) in 1986. INGRES was among the first relational databases (collections of information in which data are represented in tabular form and individual records are stored as one row of the table). Postgres improved…

interactive media, any computer-delivered electronic system that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. Interactive media integrate computer, memory storage, digital (binary) data, telephone,

computer: Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX: …to promote the idea of interactive computing as an alternative to batch processing. Batch processing was the normal mode of operating computers at the time: a user handed a deck of punched cards to an operator, who fed them to the machine, and an hour or more later the printed…

interactive media, any computer-delivered electronic system that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. Interactive media integrate computer, memory storage, digital (binary) data, telephone,

Above is an interactive periodic table of the elements. Clicking on one of the types of elements at the top will emphasize those elements in the table and give some information about what those elements have in common. Clicking on one of the elements will bring up a larger tile with that element’s

e-health: E-health technologies: Interactive TV, also known as polycom, provides both audio and visual transfer of a variety of information between two or more individuals at two or more locations in real time. Kiosks, which are freestanding devices (usually computers), are used in e-health to provide interactive information…

bioinformatics: The data of bioinformatics: …distribution of proteins in cells; interactomics, the patterns of protein-protein and protein–nucleic acid interactions; and metabolomics, the nature and traffic patterns of transformations of small molecules by the biochemical pathways active in cells. In each case there is interest in obtaining comprehensive, accurate data for particular cell types and in…

Rwanda genocide of 1994: Genocide: …militia groups known as the Interahamwe (“Those Who Attack Together”) and Impuzamugambi (“Those Who Have the Same Goal”) played a central role. Radio broadcasts further fueled the genocide by encouraging Hutu civilians to kill their Tutsi neighbors, who were referred to as “cockroaches” who needed to be exterminated. It is…

human respiratory system: The gas-exchange region: The alveolar wall, called the interalveolar septum, is common to two adjacent alveoli. It contains a dense network of capillaries, the smallest of the blood vessels, and a skeleton of connective tissue fibres. The fibre system is interwoven with the capillaries and particularly reinforced at the alveolar entrance rings. The…

Inter-American Regional Organization of Workers, Latin-American labour union federation that was established in 1951 as a regional organization for the Latin-American members of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which had been founded in 1949 primarily by the American F

Ponferrada, city, León provincia (province), in the Castile-León comunidad autónoma (autonomous community), northwestern Spain. It lies at the confluence of the Sil and Boeza rivers, west of the city of León. Identified with the Roman Interamnium Flavium, Ponferrada was refounded in the 11th

climate change: Interannual variation: Interannual climate variations, including droughts, floods, and other events, are caused by a complex array of factors and Earth system interactions. One important feature that plays a role in these variations is the periodic change of atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns in the…

climate change: Interannual variation: Interannual climate variations, including droughts, floods, and other events, are caused by a complex array of factors and Earth system interactions. One important feature that plays a role in these variations is the periodic change of atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns in the…

deep-sea trench: Structure: Such interarc, or backarc, basins are sites of seafloor spreading directly caused by the dynamics of subduction. They originate at the volcanic line, so that the outer bounding submarine ridge, or third arc, represents an older portion of the volcanic line that has spread away. These…

human cardiovascular system: Chambers of the heart: …a partition known as the interatrial septum; the lower chambers, the ventricles, are separated by the interventricular septum. The atria receive blood from various parts of the body and pass it into the ventricles. The ventricles, in turn, pump blood to the lungs and to the remainder of the body.

human nervous system: Brainstem: …collectively referred to as the diencephalon. These structures are the epithalamus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the subthalamus. Directly beneath the diencephalon is the midbrain, or mesencephalon, and beneath the midbrain are the pons and medulla oblongata, often referred to as the hindbrain.

evolution: The concept of species: People can also interbreed with one another, and so can cats with other cats, but people cannot interbreed with dogs or cats, nor can these with each other. It is clear then that, although species are usually identified by appearance, there is something basic, of great biological significance,…

InBev: …Américas (AmBev) and the Belgian Interbrew SA. In 2008 it acquired Anheuser-Busch, and the resulting company was named Anheuser-Busch InBev.

Roman republican calendar: …27 or 28 days, called Mercedonius, kept the calendar in step with the seasons. The confusion was compounded by political maneuvers. The Pontifex Maximus and the College of Pontiffs had the authority to alter the calendar, and they sometimes did so to reduce or extend the term of a particular…

meristem: …vascular and cork cambia), and intercalary (at internodes, or stem regions between the places at which leaves attach, and leaf bases, especially of certain monocotyledons—e.g., grasses). Apical meristems give rise to the primary plant body and are responsible for the extension of the roots and shoots. Lateral meristems are known…

cardiac muscle: …connected end to end by intercalated disks and are organized into layers of myocardial tissue that are wrapped around the chambers of the heart. The contraction of individual cardiac muscle cells produces force and shortening in these bands of muscle, with a resultant decrease in the heart chamber size and…

cardiac muscle: …connected end to end by intercalated disks and are organized into layers of myocardial tissue that are wrapped around the chambers of the heart. The contraction of individual cardiac muscle cells produces force and shortening in these bands of muscle, with a resultant decrease in the heart chamber size and…

Olympic Games: Athens, Greece, 1906: …often referred to as the Intercalated Olympic Games, introduced some important permanent Olympic customs, including the parade of the nations’ teams in ranks around the track, now the first major event at all opening ceremonies. Olympic scholars agree that, after the fiascoes of 1900 and 1904, the well-organized and highly…

intercalation, insertion of days or months into a calendar to bring it into line with the solar year (year of the seasons). One example is the periodic inclusion of leap-year day (February 29) in the Gregorian calendar now in general use. To keep the months of a lunar calendar (e.g., the Hindu

cell: Tissue and species recognition: …adhesion is carried out by cell junctions.

parasitism: …endoparasites, which may be either intercellular (inhabiting spaces in the host’s body) or intracellular (inhabiting cells in the host’s body). Intracellular parasites—such as bacteria or viruses—often rely on a third organism, known as the carrier, or vector, to transmit them to the host. Malaria, which is caused by a protozoan…

Glenn Greenwald: …to launch the news outlet The Intercept in 2014. Under the leadership of founding editors Greenwald, Poitras, and Jeremy Scahill, the organization broke several major stories and worked with government whistleblowers, including Daniel Hale and Reality Winner. In 2015, on the basis of leaks provided by Hale, The Intercept published…

hydrosphere: Distribution of precipitation: This process is termed interception and may result in little water reaching the ground because the water may be directly evaporated from plant surfaces back into the atmosphere. If precipitation reaches the ground in the form of snow, it may remain there for some time. On the other hand,…

fighter aircraft: An interceptor is a fighter whose design and armament best fit it for intercepting and defeating or routing invading fighters. A night fighter is one equipped with sophisticated radar and other instruments for navigating in unfamiliar or hostile territory at night. A day fighter is an…

armour: Modern body armour systems: …replaced the PASGT with the Interceptor Body Armor, or IBA, system. The IBA consists of an “outer tactical vest” made from layered Kevlar, which provides protection against shell fragments and most handgun bullets as large as 9 mm, and two ceramic “small arms protective inserts,” or SAPI plates, which can…

Christianity: Concepts of life after death: …purgatory can be shortened through intercession, alms, indulgences, and benefits of the sacrifice of the mass. The Eastern Orthodox Church has no doctrine of purgatory but does practice an intercession for the dead. It assumes that, on the basis of the connection between the church of the living and that…

Western architecture: Russia: …example of which is the church of the Intercession of the Virgin at Fili (1693) on the estate of Boyarin Naryshkin, whose name had become identified with this phase of the Russian Baroque.

Western architecture: Kievan Rus and Russia: …in the Moscow Kremlin; the church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Nerl, one of the loveliest creations of medieval Russia (1165); and the church of St. Dmitri (1194–97). These churches as a group represent the continuation of the Kievo-Byzantine tradition in their ground plan, but the old…

Saint Basil the Blessed, church constructed on Red Square in Moscow between 1554 and 1560 by Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible), as a votive offering for his military victories over the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan. The church was dedicated to the protection and intercession of the Virgin, but it came