Nicholas I: Reign of Nicholas I: …and the new role of His Majesty’s Own Chancery. Organized originally as a bureau to deal with matters that demanded the sovereign’s personal participation and to supervise the execution of the emperor’s orders, it acquired five new departments: in 1826 the Second and the Third, to deal with the codification…

Thomas Head Raddall: His first novel, His Majesty’s Yankees (1942), set in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution, was followed by other carefully researched historical romances. He also published The Nymph and the Lamp (1950), a story of contemporary life at a Canadian wireless station; a historical work, Halifax, Warden of…

Stanisław Lem: His Master’s Voice is another classic of traditional science fiction themes. It concerns an all-out effort by scientists to decode, or understand, what appears to be a message from the stars. In an early chapter, Lem inserts a critique of the science fiction genre: the…

Australian literature: The century after settlement: Marcus Clarke’s His Natural Life (1874; the antecedent phrase For the Term of was inserted without authority after his death) is the first novel regarded as an Australian classic. It is a powerful account of the convict experience, drawing heavily on documentary sources. Within the rigours and…

Leopoldo Alas: …and Su único hijo (1890; His Only Son), are among the greatest Spanish novels of the 19th century. Although often called naturalistic novels, neither adheres to naturalism’s scientific principles or its characteristic depiction of sordidness and violence. Where naturalism rejects the spiritual and psychological in favour of behaviouristic observation, Alas’s…

Wilhelm His was a Swiss cardiologist, who discovered (1893) the specialized muscle fibres (known as the bundle of His) running along the muscular partition between the left and right chambers of the heart. He found that these fibres help communicate a single rhythm of contraction to all parts of

Wilhelm His was a Swiss-born German anatomist and embryologist who created the science of histogenesis, or the study of the embryonic origins of different types of animal tissue. His discovery (1886) that each nerve fibre stems from a single nerve cell was essential to the development of the neuron

Hisar, city, northwestern Haryana state, northwestern India. It is located on the Sirhind branch of the Western Yamuna Canal, just west of Hansi. Hisar was founded in 1356 by Fīrūz Shah Tughluq and later became an important Mughal centre. Depopulated in the 18th century, it was occupied later in

Hisarlık, archaeological mound lying on the Küçük Menderes River near the mouth of the Dardanelles in Turkey. Long known to bear the remains of the Hellenistic and Roman town called Ilion or Ilium, in 1822 it was identified by Charles Maclaren on the basis of ancient literature as the site of

shinden-zukuri: …a secondary roofed veranda, or hisashi. The moya was not partitioned, privacy being secured by low portable screens. Mats on the floor served for seating. Across the court from the moya was the pond garden, forming the enclosure’s southern limit. Mountain shapes, trees, and rocks combined in a landscape representation…

Ancestral Pueblo culture, prehistoric Native American civilization that existed from approximately ad 100 to 1600, centring generally on the area where the boundaries of what are now the U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah intersect. The descendents of the Ancestral Pueblo

Ḥisdai ibn Shaprut was a Jewish physician, translator, and political figure who helped inaugurate the golden age of Hebrew letters in Moorish Spain and who was a powerful statesman in a number of major diplomatic negotiations. After becoming court physician to the powerful Umayyad caliph ʿAbd

Ḥisdai ibn Shaprut was a Jewish physician, translator, and political figure who helped inaugurate the golden age of Hebrew letters in Moorish Spain and who was a powerful statesman in a number of major diplomatic negotiations. After becoming court physician to the powerful Umayyad caliph ʿAbd

infectious disease: HISG: Human immune serum globulin (HISG) is prepared from human serum. Special treatment of the serum removes various undesirable proteins and infectious viruses, thus providing a safe product for intramuscular injection. HISG is used for the treatment of antibody deficiency conditions and for the prevention…

Spain: The independent emirate: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I’s successors, Hishām I (788–796) and al-Ḥakam I (796–822), encountered severe internal dissidence among the Arab nobility. A rebellion in Toledo was put down savagely, and the internal warfare caused the emir to increase the numbers of Slav and Amazigh mercenaries and to impose new taxes to…

Hishām ibn al-Kalbī was a scholar of the customs, lineage, and battles of the early Arabs. Hishām’s father was a distinguished scholar of Kūfah who endeavoured to put into writing oral traditions gathered from Bedouins and professional reciters. Hishām is said to have taught in Baghdad, perhaps

Hishām ibn al-Kalbī was a scholar of the customs, lineage, and battles of the early Arabs. Hishām’s father was a distinguished scholar of Kūfah who endeavoured to put into writing oral traditions gathered from Bedouins and professional reciters. Hishām is said to have taught in Baghdad, perhaps

Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik was the tenth caliph, who reigned during the final period of prosperity and glory of the Umayyads. Before his accession to the throne in 724, Hishām led a quiet life in the Umayyad court, holding no important public offices. He reigned during a time of relative calm. Hishām

Spain: The caliphate of Córdoba: …was occupied by his son Hishām II al-Muʾayyad, a minor. Hishām grew up under the tutelage of his mother, Aurora, and of the prime minister, Jaʿfar al-Muṣḥafī, who before long was liquidated by al-Manṣūr. The latter succeeded in eliminating all temporal power of the caliph, whom he dominated, and acquired…

Caliphate of Córdoba: …1031, when the puppet ruler Hishām III was deposed by his viziers and the caliphate disintegrated into the so-called kingdoms of the taifa. During this century there were 12 caliphs, all except the first two of whom were puppets and most of whom died by violence.

Khirbat al-Mafjar, Umayyad desert palace complex located in the Wadi Al-Nuwayʿima, approximately 3 miles (5 km) north of Jericho, in the West Bank. Built in the 8th century, this palace contained a residential unit consisting of a square building with an elaborate entrance, a porticoed courtyard,

Hishida Shunsō was a painter who, with his friend Yokoyama Taikan, contributed to the revitalization of traditional Japanese painting. Hishida studied in Tokyo, first with a painter of the Kanō school (which emphasized the use of Chinese subject matter and technique) and then at the Tokyo Fine Arts

Hishikawa Moronobu was a Japanese printmaker, the first great master of ukiyo-e (“pictures of the floating world”), a genre depicting entertainment districts and other scenes of urban life. The son of a provincial embroiderer, Hishikawa started by drawing designs for embroidery. About the middle of

Arabia: The Hejaz and Asir: …interior the sandstone plateau of Ḥismā has an elevation of about 4,000 feet. South of it are great lava fields such as the ʿUwayriḍ, while others ring Medina. Tongues of lava south of Medina, lapping over the mountains, descend almost to the coast. The sand plain of Rakbah unrolls south…

Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb, historic mountain site located on the southern coast of Arabia in southern Yemen. On the summit of the mountain are the ruins of an ancient castle, a watchtower, and cisterns and other structures. On flat ground immediately north of the mountain are the remains of Cane, a port and

Adıyaman, city located in a valley of southeastern Turkey. Founded in the 8th century by the Umayyad Arabs near the site of ancient Perre, Ḥiṣn Manṣūr was later fortified by Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd and became the chief town of the area, replacing Perre. Ruled successively by the Byzantines, the

Asia: Geologic and climatic influences: …in the Tien Shan and Gissar and Alay ranges, played a significant role.

Sevilla, city, capital of the provincia (province) of Sevilla, in the Andalusia comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of southern Spain. Sevilla lies on the left (east) bank of the Guadalquivir River at a point about 54 miles (87 km) north of the Atlantic Ocean and about 340 miles (550 km)

St. Isidore of Sevilla: …the original edition of the Hispana collectio, the canon law of the Spanish church sometimes known as the Collectio canonum Isidoriana (“The Collection of the Canons of Isidore”); a mid-9th-century enlarged edition of the Hispana, falsely attributed to Isidore, is now called the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. He was canonized by Pope…

Hispania, in Roman times, region comprising the Iberian Peninsula, now occupied by Portugal and Spain. The origins of the name are disputed. When the Romans took the peninsula from the Carthaginians (206 bce), they divided it into two provinces: Hispania Ulterior (present Andalusia, Extremadura,

bullfighting: Origins and early forms: …tales of games held in Baetica (the Spanish region of Andalusia) in which men exhibited dexterity and valour before dealing the death blow with ax or lance to a wild horned beast. The Iberians were reported to have used skins or cloaks (precursors to the cape) to avoid the repeated…

ancient Rome: Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean: …197 by creating two provinces, Nearer and Further Spain. They also exploited the Spanish riches, especially the mines, as the Carthaginians had done. In 197 the legions were withdrawn, but a Spanish revolt against the Roman presence led to the death of one governor and required that the two praetorian…

ancient Rome: Foreign policy: …formed: senatorial Baetica and imperial Lusitania and Tarraconensis. Three legions enforced Roman authority from Gibraltar to the mouth of the Rhine. Augustus ignored the advice of court poets and others to advance still farther and annex Britain.

ancient Rome: Foreign policy: Baetica and imperial Lusitania and Tarraconensis. Three legions enforced Roman authority from Gibraltar to the mouth of the Rhine. Augustus ignored the advice of court poets and others to advance still farther and annex Britain.

ancient Rome: Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean: …creating two provinces, Nearer and Further Spain. They also exploited the Spanish riches, especially the mines, as the Carthaginians had done. In 197 the legions were withdrawn, but a Spanish revolt against the Roman presence led to the death of one governor and required that the two praetorian governors of…

Felipe Pedrell: In the eight-volume Hispaniae schola musica sacra, Pedrell edited, for the first time, a vast quantity of early Spanish church, stage, and organ music, including the keyboard works of Antonio de Cabezón and the complete works of Tomás Luis de Victoria. At the same time, he was working…

history of Latin America, history of the region from the pre-Columbian period and including colonization by the Spanish and Portuguese beginning in the 15th century, the 19th-century wars of independence, and developments to the end of the 20th century. Latin America is generally understood to

Hispanic Americans, people living in the United States who are descendants of Spanish-speaking peoples. Since most Hispanics trace their ancestry to Latin America, they are also often called Latinos. Hispanics make up the largest ethnic minority in the United States, forming more than one-sixth of

Spain: Festivals and holidays: October 12 is the Day of the Virgin of El Pilar and also the day on which the “discovery” of America is celebrated (a counterpart to the celebration of Columbus Day in the United States); it has been called at different times the Day of the Race (Día de…

The 2000 census of the United States revealed that the country had become even more ethnically and racially diverse as cities and suburbs filled with new immigrants. During the 1990s, the overall U.S. population grew by 13 percent to more than 280 million people, and some 13 million of the

According to the 2010 census of the United States, the country had a population of more than 308 million people—an increase of almost 10 percent from 2000. One of the fastest-growing segments of the population was that of those identifying themselves as being of Hispanic or Latino origin: more than

Hispaniola, second largest island of the West Indies, lying within the Greater Antilles, in the Caribbean Sea. It is divided politically into the Republic of Haiti (west) and the Dominican Republic (east). The island’s area is 29,418 square miles (76,192 square km); its greatest length is nearly

solenodon: The Hispaniolan solenodon (S. paradoxus) lives in Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Hispano-Moresque ware, tin-glazed, lustred earthenware made by Moorish potters in Spain, chiefly at Málaga in the 15th century, and in the region of Manises, near Valencia, in the 16th century. The tin glaze was applied over a design usually traced in cobalt blue; after the first firing, the

Spain: Visigothic Spain to c. 500: …probably about six million, were Hispano-Romans, as compared with 200,000 barbarians. Hispano-Romans held many administrative positions and continued to be governed by Roman law embodied in the Theodosian Code. The Codex Euricianus (“Code of Euric”), which was completed in 475 or 483 or under Euric’s son a generation later, was…

automobile: Other European developments: …the Elizalde, and the classic Hispano-Suiza by the great Swiss designer Marc Birkigt was Spanish-financed. The oldest automobile still in running order at the beginning of the 21st century was thought to be an 1888 Hammel, made in Denmark.

Hisperic style, a style of Latin writing that probably originated in the British Isles in the 7th century. It is characterized by extreme obscurity intentionally produced by periphrasis (preference for a longer phrase over a shorter, equally adequate phrase), coinage of new words, and very liberal

hantavirus: …by the hispid cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus); Louisiana, caused by the Bayou virus (carried by the marsh rice rat, Oryzomys palustris); Chile and Argentina, caused by the Andes virus (carried by Oligoryzomys longicaudatus, a species of pygmy rice rat); and Central America, caused by the Choclo

rabbit: …whereas the rockhares and the hispid hare are rabbits. Rabbits differ from hares in size, life history, and preferred habitat. In general, rabbits are smaller and have shorter ears than hares. They are born without fur and with closed eyes after a gestation period of 30–31 days. They prefer habitats…

Alger Hiss was a former U.S. State Department official who was convicted in January 1950 of perjury concerning his dealings with Whittaker Chambers, who accused him of membership in a communist espionage ring. His case, which came at a time of growing apprehension about the domestic influence of

Hisar, city, northwestern Haryana state, northwestern India. It is located on the Sirhind branch of the Western Yamuna Canal, just west of Hansi. Hisar was founded in 1356 by Fīrūz Shah Tughluq and later became an important Mughal centre. Depopulated in the 18th century, it was occupied later in

Asia: Geologic and climatic influences: …in the Tien Shan and Gissar and Alay ranges, played a significant role.

Tappa Ḥiṣār, Iranian archaeological site located near Dāmghān in northern Iran. Excavations made in 1931–32 by the University of Pennsylvania and in 1956 by the University of Tokyo demonstrated that the site was continuously inhabited from about 3900 to about 1900 bc. The long habitation sequence

Joni Mitchell: Clouds, Blue, Big Yellow Taxi, and Woodstock: The Hissing of Summer Lawns (1975) further indicated a transition to a more complex, layered sound. Whereas earlier albums were more confessional in their subject matter, The Hissing of Summer Lawns, on which she satirized the role of the 1970s housewife, showed Mitchell’s movement toward…

Histadrut, Israeli labour organization that includes workers in the cooperative and collective agricultural settlements as well as in most industries. Organized in 1920, Histadrut is the largest voluntary organization in Israel and the most important economic body in the state. Its activities

histamine, biologically active substance found in a great variety of living organisms. It is distributed widely, albeit unevenly, throughout the animal kingdom and is present in many plants and bacteria and in insect venom. Histamine is chemically classified as an amine, an organic molecule based

fish poisoning: Scombroid poisoning comes from consumption of tuna, skipjack, bonito, and other fish in the mackerel family that have lost their freshness; bacteria in the fish act on histidine, an amino acid that is a normal constituent of the fish protein, to produce the substance that…

hister beetle, (family Histeridae), any of approximately 3,900 species of beetles (insect order Coleoptera) that are carnivorous and are usually found around carrion, fungi, or dung. Some species occur under bark in dead trees, whereas others burrow in sand or live in mammal burrows or termite

hister beetle, (family Histeridae), any of approximately 3,900 species of beetles (insect order Coleoptera) that are carnivorous and are usually found around carrion, fungi, or dung. Some species occur under bark in dead trees, whereas others burrow in sand or live in mammal burrows or termite

coleopteran: Annotated classification: Superfamily Histeroidea Antennae geniculate (elbow-shaped) with last 3 segments club-shaped; wing with medio-cubital loop reduced; elytron truncate leaving 1 or 2 segments of abdomen exposed. Family Histeridae (hister beetles; also known as clown beetles) Small, dark, shiny; found in decaying organic matter; predatory on small

Histiaeus was the tyrant of the Anatolian city of Miletus under the Persian king Darius I and a reputed instigator of the revolt (499–494) of the Ionian Greeks against Darius. According to Herodotus, Histiaeus rendered great service to Darius during the king’s Scythian campaign (c. 513) by

histidine, an amino acid obtainable by hydrolysis of many proteins. A particularly rich source, hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells) yields about 8.5 percent by weight of histidine. First isolated in 1896 from various proteins, histidine is one of several so-called essential

macrophage, type of white blood cell that helps eliminate foreign substances by engulfing foreign materials and initiating an immune response. Macrophages are constituents of the reticuloendothelial system (or mononuclear phagocyte system) and occur in almost all tissues of the body. In some

cephalopod: Behaviour: …light organs of the squid Histioteuthis are highly complicated, consisting of reflector, light source, directive muscles, lens, diaphragm, window, and colour screens.

morphology: Chemical techniques: Histochemistry involves the differential staining of cells (i.e., using dyes that stain specific structural and molecular components) to reflect the chemical differences of the constituents. By choosing appropriate dyes, the histochemist is able, for example, to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the chemical compounds…

transplant: Selection of donor and tissue matching: …rejection are called transplantation, or histocompatibility, antigens. If donor and recipient have the same antigens, as do identical twins, there can be no rejection. All cells in the body have transplantation antigens except the red blood cells, which carry their own system of blood-group (ABO) antigens. The main human transplantation…

major histocompatibility complex (MHC), group of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells that help the immune system recognize foreign substances. MHC proteins are found in all higher vertebrates. In human beings the complex is also called the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)

angiosperm: Vegetative structures: …and their cells are termed initials. In the embryo they are found at either end of the bipolar axis and are called apical meristems. As the plant matures, apical meristems in the shoots produce new buds and leaves, and apical meristems in the roots are the points of active growth…

plant development: The root tip: …analysis has led to the histogen theory, which proposes that the three principal tissues of the root—vascular cylinder, cortex, and epidermis—originate from three groups of initial cells, or histogens, in the apical meristem—plerome, periblem, and dermatogen respectively. A fourth histogen, the calyptrogen, produces the root cap. The histogens have been…

histogenesis, series of organized, integrated processes by which cells of the primary germ layers of an embryo differentiate and assume the characteristics of the tissues into which they will develop. Although the final form of the cells that compose a tissue may not be evident until the organ

histogram, Graph using vertical or horizontal bars whose lengths indicate quantities. Along with the pie chart, the histogram is the most common format for representing statistical data. Its advantage is that it not only clearly shows the largest and smallest categories but gives an immediate

Louis-Marie-Olivier Duchesne: …ancienne de l’église chrétienne (Early History of the Christian Church), of which the first three volumes (1905–08) were put on the Index of Forbidden Books, the fourth volume being published posthumously (1925).

Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac: …his two best known works, Histoire comique des états et empires de la lune and Histoire comique des états et empires du soleil (Eng. trans. A Voyage to the moon: with some account of the Solar World, 1754). These stories of imaginary journeys to the Moon and Sun, published posthumously…

Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac: …empires de la lune and Histoire comique des états et empires du soleil (Eng. trans. A Voyage to the moon: with some account of the Solar World, 1754). These stories of imaginary journeys to the Moon and Sun, published posthumously in 1656 and 1662, satirize 17th-century religious and astronomical beliefs,…

Henry de Montherlant: …la Rose de Sable (1954; Desert Love); this book is also highly critical of French colonial rule in North Africa.

François Truffaut: Early works: …also made a second short, Une Histoire d’eau (1961; A Story of Water), a slapstick comedy for which Jean-Luc Godard developed the conclusion.

Story of O, erotic novel by Anne Desclos, first published in French (Histoire d’O, 1954) under the pen name Pauline Réage, itself a pen name for Dominique Aury, a French writer and translator who was a respected member of the literary establishment but who gained her greatest fame in 1994 when it

Victor Hugo: Exile (1851–70) of Victor Hugo: …indictment of Napoleon III, and Histoire d’un crime, a day-by-day account of Louis Bonaparte’s coup. Hugo’s return to poetry was an explosion of wrath: Les Châtiments (1853; “The Punishments”). This collection of poems unleashed his anger against the new emperor and, on a technical level, freed him from his remaining…

André Baillon: Baillon’s earliest novels Histoire d’une Marie (1921; “The Story of a [Girl Named] Marie”) and Zonzon Pépette, fille de Londres (1923; “Zonzon Pépette, Girl of London”) are realistic studies of prostitution, while En Sabots (1922; “In Wooden Shoes”), the novel that first drew the attention of the French…

Henri Pirenne: His greatest work, Histoire de Belgique, 7 vol. (1900–32; “History of Belgium”), gained him international respect for his innovative approach to socioeconomic developments in town life and his contention that Belgian unity was not the result of ethnic identification or political centralization but instead emerged from the position…

Voltaire: Return to France: …him to write his life, Histoire de Charles XII (1731), a carefully documented historical narrative that reads like a novel. Philosophic ideas began to impose themselves as he wrote: the King of Sweden’s exploits brought desolation, whereas his rival Peter the Great brought Russia into being, bequeathing a vast, civilized…

Jacques Bainville: …and Germany; notable is his Histoire de deux peuples (1915; “History of Two Nations”), an anti-German work dealing with the recurrent German invasions of France. In 1920 he published Les Conséquences politiques de la paix (1920; “The Political Consequences of the Peace”), in which he attacked the Treaty of Versailles…

Henri Martin: …an author of a famous history of France that included excerpts from the chief chroniclers and historians, with original expository passages filling the gaps.

Jules Michelet: …his monumental life’s work, the Histoire de France. The first six volumes (1833–43) stop at the end of the Middle Ages; they include the “Tableau de la France,” in which the emergence of France as a nation is seen as a victory over racial and geographic determinism; they also include…

Henri Martin: …work, together with the continuation, Histoire de France depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours, 6 vol. (1878–83; “History of France from 1789 to Our Time”), gives a complete history of France and superseded earlier such works. Martin was a staunch republican and sat in the National Assembly as deputy for Aisne…

Gabriel Daniel: …he wrote a pioneering work, Histoire de France depuis l’établissement de la monarchie française (1st complete ed., 1713; ed. by P. Griffet, 1755–60; The history of France from the time the French monarchy was establish’d, 1732). He also wrote Histoire de la milice française, 2 vol. (1721; “History of the…

Gil Blas, picaresque novel by Alain-René Lesage, published in four volumes—the first two in 1715, the third in 1724, and the fourth in 1735. Considered one of literature’s first realistic novels, Gil Blas takes an ordinary man through a series of adventures in high and low society. The work helped

Alain-René Lesage: Lesage’s Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane (1715–1735; The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillane) is one of the earliest realistic novels. It concerns the education and adventures of an adaptable young valet as he progresses from one master to the next. In the service of…

Claude-Carloman de Rulhière: …to the writing of his Histoire de l’anarchie de Pologne, 4 vol. (1807), based on personal interviews and correspondence. Although his history of Poland is no longer regarded highly, it is important as one of the few valuable sources not destroyed in the Revolution. A well-known literary figure and author…

Herman De Valenciennes: …a priest and wrote the Histoire de la Bible (after 1189), including the Old and New Testaments in an abridged form, and a separate poem on the Assumption of the Virgin. The work is known as Le Roman de sapience (“The Story of Wisdom”). He selected biblical stories to suit…

Henri Pirenne: Pirenne’s first important book was Histoire de la constitution de la ville de Dinant au moyen âge (1889; “History of the Constitution of the City of Dinant in the Middle Ages”), a study of medieval town life that became one of the major themes of his later works. His greatest…

Lucien Paul Victor Febvre: …of the 16th century, and Histoire de Franche-Comté (1912), a broad investigation of the region based on a problem-centred approach to historical analysis, displayed his talents in art and literature as well as the social sciences. After teaching in two secondary schools, he was appointed in 1912 to the University…

literature: National and group literature: His History of English Literature (5 vol., 1863–69) is an extensive elaboration of these ideas. It is doubtful that anyone today would agree with the simplistic terms in which Taine states his thesis. It is obvious that Russian literature differs from English or French from German.…

children’s literature: Overview: …critic Jean de Trigon, in Histoire de la littérature enfantine, de ma Mère l’Oye au Roi Babar (Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1950) said: “The French have created little children’s literature. They have received more than they have given, but they have assimilated, adapted, transformed. The two are not the same thing,…

Pierre Belon: …discussion of the dolphin, and L’histoire de la nature des oyseaux (1555; “Natural History of Birds”), illustrating, classifying, and describing about 200 species, include original observations and concepts that made a deep impression on contemporary and later science. Belon was murdered by unknown assailants in the Bois de Boulogne.

Robert Rumilly: …his immense and incomplete study Histoire de la province de Québec, 34 vol. (1940–63; “History of the Province of Quebec”). Educated in France, he served in the French army during World War I before emigrating to Canada in 1928. He became a supporter of the French cultural movement in Quebec,…

Jean-Henri Merle d’Aubigné: …Réformation du seizième siècle (1835–53; History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 1838–41) and the more scholarly Histoire de la Réformation en Europe au temps de Calvin (1863–78; History of the Reformation in Europe at the Time of Calvin). Although considered partisan toward the Presbyterian church organization, he revitalized…

Jean-Henri Merle d’Aubigné: …au temps de Calvin (1863–78; History of the Reformation in Europe at the Time of Calvin). Although considered partisan toward the Presbyterian church organization, he revitalized Protestant church historical scholarship and assembled more source documents than any other historian up to his time.

Claude-Carloman de Rulhière: …the first chapter of his Histoire de la révolution de Russie en 1762, based on his detailed personal records. On the appearance of the second chapter in 1773, he was apparently harassed by Russians in Paris who wanted to suppress the manuscript, which he had intended for private circulation. After…

Jules Michelet: …de France to write the Histoire de la révolution française, 7 vol. (1847–53). He visualized the French Revolution as a climax, as the triumph of la Justice over la Grâce (by which he meant both Christian dogma and the arbitrary power of the monarchy). These volumes, written at a feverish…