lych-gate, (from Middle English lyche, “body”; yate, “gate”) roofed-in gateway to a churchyard in which a bier might stand while the introductory part of the burial service was read. The most common form of lych-gate was a simple shed composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered with tiles or

Indian pipe, (Monotropa uniflora), nonphotosynthetic perennial herb of the heath family (Ericaceae). The plant is mycoheterotrophic, meaning it lives in close association with a fungus from which it acquires most of its nutrition. The fungus, in turn, lives in association with neighbouring beeches

obesity, excessive accumulation of body fat, usually caused by the consumption of more calories than the body can use. The excess calories are then stored as fat, or adipose tissue. Overweight, if moderate, is not necessarily obesity, particularly in muscular or large-boned individuals. Obesity was

plant development: The shoot tip: …layering; this zone is the corpus. The layers of the tunica normally contribute to the surface layers of the plant, and the corpus provides the deeper lying tissues.

human reproductive system: Ovulation: …a scarlike structure called a corpus albicans, which persists for a few months.

lepidopteran: Growth, molting, and metamorphosis: …are chiefly secreted by the corpora allata and other parts of the brain and by paired prothoracic glands. The prothoracic gland hormone is necessary for larval molting (ecdysis), metamorphosis to the pupa, and formation of adult characteristics. On the other hand, a hormone secreted by the corpora allata inhibits metamorphosis…

Scholasticism: Roots of Scholasticism: …translation into Latin of the Corpus Areopagiticum, which was made in the 9th century—i.e., some 400 years after the death of its author—by John Scotus Erigena, is itself worthy of mention, especially because the translator was one of the most remarkable figures of early medieval philosophy. After generations of brave…

corpus callosum, bundle of nerve fibres in the longitudinal fissure of the brain that enables corresponding regions of the left and right cerebral hemispheres to communicate. The axons and dendrites of the neurons in the corpus callosum synapse with cortical neurons on symmetrically related points

canon law: Development of canon law in the West: …form the Corpus (“Body”) or Codex canonum (“Code of Canons”).

canon law: Eastern churches: This Syntagma canonum (“Body of Canons”), or Corpus canonum orientale (“Eastern Body of Canons”), was subsequently complemented by the canons attributed to other 4th- and 5th-century councils, canonical letters of 12 Greek Fathers and of the 3rd-century Latin bishop of Carthage, St. Cyprian, and the Constitutiones…

endocrine system: Class Insecta: The paired corpora cardiaca (singular, corpus cardiacum) and the paired corpora allata (singular, corpus allatum) are both neurohemal organs that store brain neurohormones, but each has some endocrine cells as well. The ventral nerve cord and associated ganglia also contain neurosecretory cells and have their own neurohemal organs; i.e., the…

clitoris: …the body extend the erectile corpora cavernosa and bulbs. The corpora cavernosa and bulbs are continuous with two relatively long structures known as the crura, which are made up of nonerectile tissue. The body, crura, corpora cavernosa, and bulbs together are shaped like a wishbone, with the latter three tissues…

priapism: …bottom of the penis, the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum, respectively, become engorged with blood so that the penis enlarges, hardens, and assumes an erect position. The major symptom of priapism is pain and tenderness in the enlarged portions. There may be a short period during the onset when…

priapism: …the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum, respectively, become engorged with blood so that the penis enlarges, hardens, and assumes an erect position. The major symptom of priapism is pain and tenderness in the enlarged portions. There may be a short period during the onset when pleasurable sensations are felt,…

Terrence McNally: McNally’s Corpus Christi generated controversy upon its 1998 premiere for its depiction of a Christ-like character as homosexual. Among his later plays were Deuce, which opened on Broadway in 2007, and Golden Age, which followed in 2012. In his play Mothers and Sons (2014), McNally examined…

Corpus Christi, city, seat (1846) of Nueces county, southern Texas, U.S., and port on Corpus Christi Bay at the mouth of the Nueces River, 145 miles (233 km) southeast of San Antonio. It is sheltered from the Gulf of Mexico by Mustang and Padre islands. Originally inhabited by Karankawa and other

Corpus Christi Bay, inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, forming a deepwater harbour for the city of Corpus Christi, southern Texas, U.S. The bay is 25 miles (40 km) long and 3–10 miles (5–16 km) wide and is sheltered on the east from the gulf by Mustang Island. It is linked to Aransas Bay (north) and

Feast of Corpus Christi, festival of the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the real presence of the body (corpus) of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist. A movable observance, it is observed on the Thursday (or, in some countries, the Sunday) after Trinity Sunday and is a holy day of obligation in many

Christianity: Church, sect, and mystical movement: …in order to create the corpus Christianum, the Christian commonwealth or society. This development stimulates opposition from those who understand the Gospel in terms of personal commitment and detachment from the world. The opposition develops into sects, which are comparatively small groups that strive for unmediated salvation and that are…

Gustavus Adolphus: Entrance into the Thirty Years’ War: …creation of a comprehensive, permanent Corpus Evangelicorum (or Protestant league). His experience of the feckless and selfish German princes convinced him that such a league could be effective only if it were organized and directed by himself, and military necessity in any case demanded a unified command that could not…

Hermetic writings, works of revelation on occult, theological, and philosophical subjects ascribed to the Egyptian god Thoth (Greek Hermes Trismegistos [Hermes the Thrice-Greatest]), who was believed to be the inventor of writing and the patron of all the arts dependent on writing. The collection,

Hippocrates: Life and works: …the works of Hippocrates (Corpus Hippocraticum). Linguists and physicians subsequently wrote commentaries on them, and, as a result, all the virtues of the Classical medical works were eventually attributed to Hippocrates and his personality constructed from them.

epigraphy: Greek and Latin inscriptions: …), which continued where the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum left off and included the Corpus Inscriptionum Atticaru, as well as all Greek inscriptions from European Greece (including Magna Graecia in Italy) and Cyprus. Those of Anatolia were left to the Tituli Asiae Minoris of the Vienna Academy, which began with the…

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: Lehmann-Haupt in Corpus Inscriptionum Chaldicarum (1928–35); the earlier found Hittite hieroglyphic texts, by L. Messerschmidt in the antiquated Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum. The Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum, intended to gather the epigraphs of Persia proper (Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Sāsānid) and of eastern Iran and Central Asia, began in London…

epigraphy: Greek and Latin inscriptions: …perfectly published in the antiquated Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum; many important later finds are included in transcription in M. Pallottino’s Testimonia Linguae Etruscae and in M. Fowler and R.G. Wolfe, Materials for the Study of the Etruscan Language (1955; a computerized corpus). Of further relevance to the Roman world are collections…

epigraphy: Greek and Latin inscriptions: …and early 19th centuries, the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum was launched by August Böckh in 1815 under the aegis of the Berlin Academy and was completed in four volumes with index (1828–77). The material had by then again outrun the publication, and it was resolved in 1868 to re-edit completely all…

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: Messerschmidt in the antiquated Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum. The Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum, intended to gather the epigraphs of Persia proper (Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Sāsānid) and of eastern Iran and Central Asia, began in London in 1955. The Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum has published four volumes since the 1870s, comprising the Ashoka,…

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: The Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum has published four volumes since the 1870s, comprising the Ashoka, Indo-Scythian, Gupta, and Kalacuri-Cedi periods, supplemented by the series Epigraphia Indica and South Indian Inscriptions.

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: Macalister’s Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum (1945–49) gathers the oghamic and other early texts from Ireland and elsewhere. The runic inscriptions are inventoried in a variety of compilations. The Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, in Paris (since 1881), covers in separate volumes Phoenician, Aramaic, and other speech areas. Urartean…

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: The Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum, intended to gather the epigraphs of Persia proper (Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Sāsānid) and of eastern Iran and Central Asia, began in London in 1955. The Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum has published four volumes since the 1870s, comprising the Ashoka, Indo-Scythian, Gupta, and Kalacuri-Cedi…

Theodor Mommsen: Early years: …conceived the plan for the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a comprehensive collection of Latin inscriptions preserved since antiquity on stone, iron, and other enduring materials, arranged according to the basic principles of philological methodology. Having been prepared for this field by the young Kiel professor Otto Jahn, he soon became a…

epigraphy: Other inscriptions: The Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, in Paris (since 1881), covers in separate volumes Phoenician, Aramaic, and other speech areas. Urartean texts were collected by C.F. Lehmann-Haupt in Corpus Inscriptionum Chaldicarum (1928–35); the earlier found Hittite hieroglyphic texts, by L. Messerschmidt in the antiquated Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum. The…

Code of Justinian, collections of laws and legal interpretations developed under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I from 529 to 565 ce. Strictly speaking, the works did not constitute a new legal code. Rather, Justinian’s committees of jurists provided basically two reference

Corpus Juris Canonici, set of six compilations of law in the Roman Catholic Church that provided the chief source of ecclesiastical legislation from the Middle Ages until it was superseded in 1917 by the Codex Juris Canonici (Code of Canon Law). The Corpus included four official collections: the

Code of Justinian, collections of laws and legal interpretations developed under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I from 529 to 565 ce. Strictly speaking, the works did not constitute a new legal code. Rather, Justinian’s committees of jurists provided basically two reference

Corpus Juris Hungarici, unofficial collection of Hungarian legal statutes dating to the 16th century. The core of the collection consists of copies of the decrees of various kings and dates from about 1544. The collection was assembled by István Illosfalvy, provost of Eger. The same documents were

corpus luteum, yellow hormone-secreting body in the female reproductive system. It is formed in an ovary at the site of a follicle, or sac, that has matured and released its ovum, or egg, in the process known as ovulation. The corpus luteum is made up of lutein cells (from the Latin luteus, meaning

priapism: …the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum, respectively, become engorged with blood so that the penis enlarges, hardens, and assumes an erect position. The major symptom of priapism is pain and tenderness in the enlarged portions. There may be a short period during the onset when pleasurable sensations are felt,…

human nervous system: Basal ganglia: …and globus pallidus form the corpus striatum.

Albius Tibullus: …is generally known as the Corpus Tibullianum, a collection of poetry that seems most probably to have been deliberately put together to represent the work of Messalla’s circle. The first two of the four books in the Corpus are undoubtedly by Tibullus. In its entirety the collection forms a unique…

atomism: Atoms as lumpish corpuscles: As corpuscles (minute particles), atoms can either be endowed with intrinsic qualities or be inherently qualityless.

hormone: Endocrine-like glands and secretions: The corpuscles of Stannius, found only in bony fishes, are sac-like bodies in the kidney. Although they were once thought to be a form of adrenocortical tissue, they differ from it in embryological origin as well as in cytological characteristics; moreover, although the corpuscles of Stannius…

chemical analysis: X-ray emission: …atom with electrons, protons, alpha particles, or another type of particles. The vacancy also can be created by absorption of X-ray radiation or by nuclear capture of an inner-shell electron as it approaches the nucleus. Often the bombardment is sufficiently energetic to cause the inner orbital electron to be completely…

Isaac Newton: Inaugural lectures at Trinity: …that light consists of material corpuscles in motion. The corpuscular conception of light was always a speculative theory on the periphery of his optics, however. The core of Newton’s contribution had to do with colours. An ancient theory extending back at least to Aristotle held that a certain class of…

Robert Boyle: Scientific career: …based on a mechanical “corpuscularian hypothesis”—a brand of atomism which claimed that everything was composed of minute (but not indivisible) particles of a single universal matter and that these particles were only differentiable by their shape and motion. Among his most influential writings were The Sceptical Chymist (1661), which…

Gonzaga Dynasty: …by the 12th century the Corradi family of Gonzaga were established as members of the feudal gentry owning estates near Mantua, to which during the 13th century they managed to add other extensive properties. They took their name from the village and castle of Gonzaga, situated midway between Mantua and…

Western sculpture: Late Baroque: Allegorical groups by Antonio Corradini and Francesco Queirolo vie with each other in virtuosity and include such conceits as fishnets cut from solid marble and the all-revealing shrouds developed by Giuseppe Sammartino. Florentine sculpture of the 18th century is less spectacular, and Giovanni Battista Foggini took back from…

Nevers faience: As the Conrade family, they and their descendants dominated Nevers faience manufacture for more than a century. The earliest authenticated piece of Nevers, dated 1589, is a large oval polychrome dish depicting a mythological subject, the triumph of Galatea.

Valdivia: …or from the seaport of Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia River. Both Valdivia and Corral were severely damaged in the 1960 earthquake and by the ensuing tsunami. Pop. (2002) 127,750; (2017) municipality, 166,080.

courtyard theatre, any temporary or permanent theatre structure established in an inn’s courtyard in England or a residential courtyard in Spain. Under Elizabeth I, many plays were performed in the courtyards of London inns, with the first-recorded innyard performance in 1557. By 1576 there were

coronach, in Celtic tradition, choral lament or outcry for the dead; also, a funeral song sung or shrieked by Celtic women. Though observers have frequently reported hearing such songs in Ireland or in the Scottish Highlands, no such songs have been recorded. The Scottish border ballad “The Bonny

Rafael Correa is an economist and politician who was president of Ecuador (2007–17). Correa, whose maternal grandfather was a great-nephew of former president José Eloy Alfaro, had a difficult childhood. During a period of unemployment, his father agreed to carry illegal drugs aboard a flight to

Charles Correa was an Indian architect and urban planner known for his adaptation of Modernist tenets to local climates and building styles. In the realm of urban planning, he is particularly noted for his sensitivity to the needs of the urban poor and for his use of traditional methods and

Charles Correa was an Indian architect and urban planner known for his adaptation of Modernist tenets to local climates and building styles. In the realm of urban planning, he is particularly noted for his sensitivity to the needs of the urban poor and for his use of traditional methods and

cholera: Cholera through history: Gaspar Correa, a Portuguese historian and the author of Legendary India, gave one of the first detailed accounts of the clinical aspects of an epidemic of “moryxy” in India in 1543: “The very worst of poison seemed there to take effect, as proved by vomiting,…

Rafael Correa is an economist and politician who was president of Ecuador (2007–17). Correa, whose maternal grandfather was a great-nephew of former president José Eloy Alfaro, had a difficult childhood. During a period of unemployment, his father agreed to carry illegal drugs aboard a flight to

Eightfold Path: …speech, and senseless speech, (4) correct action, refraining from physical misdeeds such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct, (5) correct livelihood, avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, weapons, animals for slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons, (6) correct effort, abandoning negative states of mind that have…

Eightfold Path: …the existing world), and (8) correct concentration, single-mindedness.

Eightfold Path: …slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons, (6) correct effort, abandoning negative states of mind that have already arisen, preventing negative states that have yet to arise, and sustaining positive states that have already arisen, (7) correct mindfulness, awareness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena (the constituents of the existing world), and (8)…

Eightfold Path: …the Four Noble Truths, (2) correct intention, avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent, (3) correct speech, refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and senseless speech, (4) correct action, refraining from physical misdeeds such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct, (5) correct livelihood, avoiding…

Eightfold Path: …stealing, and sexual misconduct, (5) correct livelihood, avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, weapons, animals for slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons, (6) correct effort, abandoning negative states of mind that have already arisen, preventing negative states that have yet to arise, and sustaining positive states…

Eightfold Path: …that have already arisen, (7) correct mindfulness, awareness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena (the constituents of the existing world), and (8) correct concentration, single-mindedness.

Eightfold Path: …hatred, and harmful intent, (3) correct speech, refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and senseless speech, (4) correct action, refraining from physical misdeeds such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct, (5) correct livelihood, avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves,…

Eightfold Path: …of the path are: (1) correct view, an accurate understanding of the nature of things, specifically the Four Noble Truths, (2) correct intention, avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent, (3) correct speech, refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and senseless speech, (4) correct…

history of Europe: Charlemagne and the Carolingian dynasty: …and their clerical advisers called correctio—restoring the fragmented western European world to an earlier idealized condition. During the Carolingian Renaissance, as it is called by modern scholars, Frankish rulers supported monastic studies and manuscript production, attempted to standardize monastic practice and rules of life, insisted on high moral and educational…

crime, délit, and contravention: …penalties; courts of correction (tribunaux correctionnels), requiring judges but no jury, which try all other cases not involving serious bodily harm; and full courts with a jury in other crimes.

The Corrections, novel by Jonathan Franzen, published in 2001. An immense work of 21st-century American social criticism in fictional form, The Corrections has been variously hailed as “the Bleak House of the digital age” and “hysterical realism,” a sub-genre of Postmodern fiction, defined by

William De La Mare: …William wrote his chief work, Correctorium fratris Thomae (1278; “Corrective of Brother Thomas”), a critique of the writings of Thomas Aquinas. The introduction of Aristotelian thought into theology drew a volatile reaction from the traditional Neoplatonic thinkers, who had dominated Western thought since Augustine. Desirous of providing students with a…

Correggio was the most important Renaissance painter of the school of Parma, whose late works influenced the style of many Baroque and Rococo artists. His first important works are the convent ceiling of San Paolo (c. 1519), Parma, depicting allegories on humanist themes, and the frescoes in San

Correggio Family, Italian feudal family who were lords of Correggio, near Reggio Emilia, from the 11th to the 17th century. During the 13th century, as leaders of the Guelfs, they came to dominate the politics of Parma; and in 1303 Ghiberto da Correggio was acclaimed lord of the city, which he

Correggio Family: In 1341 his son Azzo, a friend of Petrarch, who dedicated to him the De remediis utriusque fortunae, recovered control of Parma, only to sell it again three years later to the Este family of Ferrara. Correggio itself, however, remained independent, being raised to the rank of countship in…

Correggio Family: …he was forced to cede Correggio to the Este of Modena in 1634. The family came to an end with the death of Camillo in 1711.

Correggio Family: …of Parma; and in 1303 Ghiberto da Correggio was acclaimed lord of the city, which he ruled until 1316. In 1341 his son Azzo, a friend of Petrarch, who dedicated to him the De remediis utriusque fortunae, recovered control of Parma, only to sell it again three years later to…

Correggio Family: Shortly afterward, in 1630, Siro da Correggio was condemned by the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II to pay a heavy fine for minting bad coin; unable to raise the sum he was forced to cede Correggio to the Este of Modena in 1634. The family came to an end…

Hugo Wolf: His first opera, Corregidor (1895; composed on a story by Pedro Antonio de Alarcón), was a failure when it was produced at Mannheim in 1896; a revised version was produced at Strasbourg in 1898. His second opera, Manuel Venegas, also after Alarcón, remained unfinished.

corregidor, (Spanish: “magistrate,” literally “corrector”), Spanish government official, first appointed by King Alfonso XI of Castile in the 14th century and later extended to Spanish colonies in America. The corregidores were administrators of cities and districts with both administrative and

Corregidor Island, rocky island, strategically located at the entrance of Manila Bay, just south of Bataan province, Luzon, Philippines. It is a national shrine commemorating the battle fought there by U.S. and Filipino forces against overwhelming numbers of Japanese during World War II. The small

Battle of Corregidor, the successful recapture by U.S. troops on February 16–March 2, 1945, during World War II, of Corregidor Island. Located at the entrance of Manila Bay in the Philippines, Corregidor had been called the “Gibraltar of the East.” The fort had been surrendered to invading Japanese

Presidente Prudente, city, western São Paulo estado (state), Brazil. It lies near the Santo Anastácio River at 1,535 feet (468 metres) above sea level. Formerly known as Córrego do Veado, the settlement was given status as a town in 1921 and as a municipality in 1923. The local economy is based

Pedro António Correia Garção was one of Portugal’s principal Neoclassical poets. Garção studied law at Coimbra but apparently took no degree. His marriage in 1751 brought him a rich dowry, and he had a moderately lucrative government post in the India House as an administrator, but later a lawsuit

cholera: Cholera through history: Gaspar Correa, a Portuguese historian and the author of Legendary India, gave one of the first detailed accounts of the clinical aspects of an epidemic of “moryxy” in India in 1543: “The very worst of poison seemed there to take effect, as proved by vomiting,…

correlation, In statistics, the degree of association between two random variables. The correlation between the graphs of two data sets is the degree to which they resemble each other. However, correlation is not the same as causation, and even a very close correlation may be no more than a

spectroscopy: Analysis of absorption spectra: …led to the development of spectral correlation charts that can be compared with observed infrared spectra to aid in ascertaining the presence or absence of particular molecular entities and in determining the structure of newly synthesized or unknown species. The infrared spectrum of any individual molecule is a unique fingerprint…

Pearson’s correlation coefficient, a measurement quantifying the strength of the association between two variables. Pearson’s correlation coefficient r takes on the values of −1 through +1. Values of −1 or +1 indicate a perfect linear relationship between the two variables, whereas a value of 0

spectroscopy: Electronic transitions: This difference, the electron correlation energy, can be a substantial fraction of the total energy.

crystal: Metallic bonds: The phrase electron correlation describes the correlated movements of the electrons; the motion of each electron depends on the positions of neighbouring electrons. Electrons have strong short-range order with one another. Correlation ensures that each unit cell in the crystal has, on the average, the number of…

animal breeding: Heritability and genetic correlations in breeding: Genetic correlation occurs when a single gene affects two traits. There may be many such genes that affect two or more traits. Genetic correlations can be positive or negative, which is indicated by assigning a number in the range from +1 to − 1, with…

geology: Paleontology: …and on different continents, involves stratigraphic correlation from place to place. Although correlation of strata over modest distances often can be accomplished by tracing particular beds from place to place, correlation over long distances and over the oceans almost invariably involves comparison of fossils. With rare exceptions, fossils occur only…

plant development: Branching of the shoot: This phenomenon is known as correlative bud inhibition, since it is determined by the activity of the leading bud of the shoot. If the leading bud is removed, the inhibited lateral buds resume growth, and with it the associated syntheses.

Gosden and Correll: In 1929 Gosden and Correll, both white, broadened their appeal by devising a larger cast of characters for a new nightly radio program, Amos ’n’ Andy, thus creating one of the first situation comedies. As Amos the cab driver and his sidekick, Andy, they became the mainstays of radio’s…

Carl Erich Correns was a German botanist and geneticist who in 1900, independent of, but simultaneously with, the biologists Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg and Hugo de Vries, rediscovered Gregor Mendel’s historic paper outlining the principles of heredity. In attempting to ascertain the extent to

clay mineral: Interstratified clay minerals: mica/montmorillonite), tosudite (dioctahedral chlorite/smectite), corrensite (trioctahedral vermiculite/chlorite), hydrobiotite (trioctahedral mica/vermiculite), aliettite (talc/saponite), and kulkeite (talc/chlorite). Other than the ABAB . . . type with equal numbers of the two component layers in a structure, many modes of layer-stacking sequences ranging from nearly regular to

courante, court dance for couples, prominent in the late 16th century and fashionable in aristocratic European ballrooms, especially in France and England, for the next 200 years. It reputedly originated as an Italian folk dance with running steps. As a court dance it was performed with small,

São Francisco River: Physiography: tributaries—the Paracatu, Urucuia, Corrente, and Grande rivers—and its main right-bank tributaries—the Verde Grande, Paramirim, and Jacaré.

Gregory XII was the pope from 1406 to 1415. He was the last of the Roman line during the Western Schism (1378–1417), when the papacy was contested by antipopes in Avignon and in Pisa. He was bishop of Castello in the Papal States (1380) and Latin Patriarch of Constantinople (1390) when made a

Symbolism: Symbolist literature: …adopted Baudelaire’s concept of the correspondances between the senses and combined this with the Wagnerian ideal of a synthesis of the arts to produce an original conception of the musical qualities of poetry. Thus, to the Symbolists, the theme within a poem could be developed and “orchestrated” by the sensitive…

Max Jacob: …Sacrifice impérial (1929); and his Correspondance (1953–55) show his unrelenting self-examination, his fantasy, and his verbal clowning, which concealed the profound torment of a convert, fearful of damnation and longing for heaven. His “novels,” mainly epistolary, are exercises in verbal mimicry, reproducing every nuance in the conversation of the petit-bourgeois,…

Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm: Published in 1812 as Correspondance littéraire, it shows sound critical taste and is an invaluable social document, containing information about every aspect of the age. Grimm’s carefully nurtured social standing and prosperity were swept away in the French Revolution. Financially ruined and embittered, supported only by a pension from…

Pierre Bonnard: …under the appropriate title of Correspondances. Formes et couleurs.

Emanuel Swedenborg: His theology: …the light of the “correspondence” between the spiritual and the material planes. He viewed references in the Bible to mundane historical matters as symbolically communicated spiritual truths, the key to which he tried to find through detailed and voluminous commentaries and interpretations. Swedenborg died in London in 1772, where…