textile: Shrinkage control: … control processes are applied by compressive shrinkage, resin treatment, or heat-setting. Compressive, or relaxation, shrinkage is applied to cotton and to certain cotton blends to reduce the stretching they experience during weaving and other processing. The fabric is dampened and dried in a relaxed state, eliminating tensions and distortions. The…

compressive strength test: The crushing strength of concrete, determined by breaking a cube, and often called the cube strength, reaches values of about 3 tons per square inch, that of granite 10 tons per square inch, and that of cast iron from 25 to 60 tons per square inch.

compressive strength test, mechanical test measuring the maximum amount of compressive load a material can bear before fracturing. The test piece, usually in the form of a cube, prism, or cylinder, is compressed between the platens of a compression-testing machine by a gradually applied load.

compressor, device for increasing the pressure of a gas by mechanically decreasing its volume. Air is the most frequently compressed gas but natural gas, oxygen, nitrogen, and other industrially important gases are also compressed. The three general types of compressors are positive displacement,

Filips van Montmorency, count van Horne: …in the formation of the Compromise, or League of Nobles, a group of 400 lesser nobles who petitioned for an end to the Inquisition, the tribunal established to discover and punish heresy. This league was largely responsible for the anti-Roman Catholic uprisings in 1566–67 and further government repressions after the…

Tariff of 1828: …the Force Bill and the Compromise Tariff of 1833. The Force Bill granted the president the authority to collect tariffs by military force if necessary, and the Compromise Tariff substantially reduced the rates of tariffs. South Carolina reversed its nullification of the previous two tariff bills, but it did declare…

Frank Perry: …Isaacs: the suburban murder mystery Compromising Positions (1985) and Hello Again (1987), a reincarnation comedy. Perry’s last film was the autobiographical documentary On the Bridge (1992), which depicted his battle against prostate cancer.

tachinid fly: …United States from Europe (Compsilura concinnata) to control the spongy moth and brown-tail moth attacks more than 200 species of caterpillars. The means of entering the host has become highly evolved among tachinids. Certain tachinid flies attach eggs to their victim’s exoskeleton. When they hatch, the larvae burrow through…

Compsognathus, (genus Compsognathus), very small predaceous dinosaurs that lived in Europe during the Late Jurassic Period (161 million to 146 million years ago). One of the smallest dinosaurs known, Compsognathus grew only about as large as a chicken, but with a length of about 60–90 cm (2–3

Compson family, fictional characters created by William Faulkner in his novels about Yoknapatawpha county, Miss., including Absalom, Absalom! (1936), The Town (1957), and The Mansion (1959). The Compsons are principal characters in The Sound and the Fury (1929) in particular, and in the 1940s

gymnosperm: Appearance of gymnosperm divisions: …a type of conifer (Compsostrobus) that had many features of the pine family (Pinaceae). Seed cones had woody ovuliferous scales with two ovules on the upper surface. More-typical pinaceous remains occurred later in the Mesozoic. The oldest known pine (Pinus mundayi) dates to about 140 million years ago; the…

wood warbler, any of the species in the songbird family Parulidae. Wood warblers are New World birds, distinct from the true warblers of the Old World, which represent a taxonomically diverse group. Because most wood warblers are brightly coloured and active, they are known as the “butterflies of

police: Compstat: In the late 20th century, police agencies and departments throughout the United States and in some areas of Britain began adopting computerized systems, known as Compstat (computerized statistics), that could be used to plot specific incidents of crime by time, day, and location. By…

geologic history of Earth: The pregeologic period: …was made in 1983 by William Compston and his research group at the Australian National University with the aid of an ion microprobe. Compston and his associates found that a water-laid clastic sedimentary quartzite from Mount Narryer in western Australia contained detrital zircon grains that were 4.18 billion years old.…

Academy of Sciences: …academy began publication of its Comptes rendus, a weekly journal of its proceedings that appeared within the week, thus creating a precedent for the rapid publication of scientific news. The Comptes largely superseded the annual volume of Mémoires, and it is still the academy’s principal publication. The academy has a…

Chambre des Comptes, (French: Chamber of Accounts), in France under the ancien régime, sovereign court charged with dealing with numerous aspects of the financial administration of the country. Originally part of the king’s court (Parlement), it was established in 1320 as a separate, independent

François, marquis de Barbé-Marbois: …appointed first president of the Cour des Comptes (an administrative court handling public accounts of the country) in 1808 and was made a senator and a count in 1813. When Napoleon’s fall became likely, Barbé-Marbois hastily and successfully attached himself to the Bourbons and was made a peer of France…

Carrefour SA: …acquired the French supermarket chain Comptoir Modernes, which operated 800 stores, and in 1999 it merged with Promodès, which had more than 6,000 stores in Europe. These acquisitions secured a leading position for Carrefour in the European retail industry.

Compton, city, Los Angeles county, southwestern California, U.S. The tract was originally part of the Rancho San Pedro, a 1784 Spanish land grant. Founded as a Methodist colony in 1867 and named for G.D. Compton, a pioneer settler, it developed as a farming village. Following an earthquake (March

Compton effect, increase in wavelength of X-rays and other energetic electromagnetic radiations that have been elastically scattered by electrons; it is a principal way in which radiant energy is absorbed in matter. The effect has proved to be one of the cornerstones of quantum mechanics, which

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), U.S. satellite, one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) “Great Observatories” satellites, which is designed to identify the sources of celestial gamma rays. In operation from 1991 to 1999, it was named in honour of Arthur Holly Compton,

Compton effect, increase in wavelength of X-rays and other energetic electromagnetic radiations that have been elastically scattered by electrons; it is a principal way in which radiant energy is absorbed in matter. The effect has proved to be one of the cornerstones of quantum mechanics, which

electromagnetic radiation: Compton effect: …electron and h/mc is called Compton wavelength. It has the value 0.0243 angstrom. The energy hν of a photon of this wavelength is equal to the rest mass energy mc2 of an electron. One might argue that electrons in atoms are not at rest, but their kinetic energy is very…

Compton’s by Britannica, a general reference work for home, school, and library, designed primarily for children and young people in the upper elementary grades and high school and for family use. In the early 21st century Compton’s contained more than 8,000 main articles in 25 volumes. A 26th

Compton’s by Britannica, a general reference work for home, school, and library, designed primarily for children and young people in the upper elementary grades and high school and for family use. In the early 21st century Compton’s contained more than 8,000 main articles in 25 volumes. A 26th

Compton’s by Britannica: Entitled Compton’s MultiMedia Encyclopedia, this first true multimedia encyclopaedia contained lavish graphics, animation, and sound. Compton’s MultiMedia Publishing Group was acquired by the Tribune Company, a Chicago-based media firm, in 1993 and merged into SoftKey International Inc. in 1996. Later in the decade the content from…

Compton’s by Britannica, a general reference work for home, school, and library, designed primarily for children and young people in the upper elementary grades and high school and for family use. In the early 21st century Compton’s contained more than 8,000 main articles in 25 volumes. A 26th

Arthur Holly Compton was an American physicist and joint winner, with C.T.R. Wilson of England, of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 for his discovery and explanation of the change in the wavelength of X-rays when they collide with electrons in metals. This so-called Compton effect is caused by

Compton’s by Britannica: (Its founder, Frank E. Compton, had previous experience in the field of encyclopaedia publication, having bought publication rights to the Student’s Cyclopedia in 1912.) The number of volumes had increased to 26 by 1974. Publishing rights to the F.E. Compton & Company products were acquired by Encyclopædia…

Henry Compton was a staunchly Protestant bishop of London (1675–1713) who played a leading part in English politics during the crisis of King James II’s reign. Educated at Queen’s College, Oxford, Compton was ordained in 1666 and became bishop of Oxford in 1674 and of London in 1675. His

Spencer Compton, 2nd earl of Northampton: His son James (1622–81) succeeded him as 3rd earl.

Karl Taylor Compton was an American educator and physicist who was closely associated with the development of the atomic bomb. After obtaining his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1912, Compton (an older brother of the Nobel prizewinner Arthur Holly Compton) joined the faculty of Reed College,

Spencer Compton, 2nd earl of Northampton was a Royalist commander during the English Civil Wars. The son of William Compton, 1st earl in the Compton line (whom he succeeded in 1630), he warmly supported King Charles I. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was entrusted with the execution of the

Spencer Compton, earl of Wilmington was a British politician, favourite of King George II and nominal prime minister of Great Britain from February 1742 to July 1743. Third son of James Spencer, 3rd earl of Northampton, he first entered Parliament in 1698; in 1715 he became speaker of the House of

Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett was an English writer who developed a distinct form of novel set almost entirely in dialogue to dissect personal relationships in the middle-class Edwardian household. Compton-Burnett was born into the type of large family she wrote about. She grew up in Richmond, Surrey,

Myricaceae: The sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) is a small aromatic shrub of eastern North America, the leaves of which have been used in folk medicines and as a seasoning.

comptroller, official whose primary responsibility is to furnish an organization with accounting records and reports. The comptroller is responsible for instituting and maintaining documents, safeguarding assets, disclosing liabilities, presenting income and other tax information, and preparing and

Richard Fleischer: Middle years: …the 1950s with the provocative Compulsion (1959), a thinly disguised rendering of the Leopold and Loeb case; Orson Welles portrayed the Clarence Darrow-like attorney whose defense fails to save the thrill-seeking murderers.

mental disorder: Anxiety disorders: …by the presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both. Obsessions are persistent unwanted thoughts that produce distress. Compulsions are repetitive rule-bound behaviors that the individual feels must be performed in order to ward off distressing situations. Obsessions and compulsions are often linked; for example, obsessions about contamination may be accompanied by…

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), type of mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions or both. Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive act may occur singly, or both may appear in sequence. Obsessions are recurring or persistent thoughts, images, or

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), type of mental disorder in which an individual experiences obsessions or compulsions or both. Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive act may occur singly, or both may appear in sequence. Obsessions are recurring or persistent thoughts, images, or

arbitration: Arbitration of interests: Compulsory arbitration, directed by legislative fiat, has been a controversial issue in the settlement of industrial disputes. It has been favoured in disputes in the transportation industry, which may involve great public inconvenience, and in disputes in the public-utilities sector when an immediate danger to…

figure skating: Recent trends and changes: The elimination of compulsory figures from competition in 1991 gave an advantage to the more athletic freestyle skaters. Until the late 1980s, skaters who were good at figures could win competitions without having strong freestyle-skating techniques, since compulsory figures were the most important part of the sport. They…

conscription, compulsory enrollment for service in a country’s armed forces. It has existed at least from the time of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (27th century bce), but there have been few instances—ancient or modern—of universal conscription (calling all those physically capable between certain

eminent domain, power of government to take private property for public use without the owner’s consent. Constitutional provisions in most countries require the payment of compensation to the owner. In countries with unwritten constitutions, such as the United Kingdom, the supremacy of Parliament

election: Compulsory voting: In some countries, notably Australia and Belgium, electoral participation is legally required, and nonvoters can face fines. The concept of compulsory voting reflects a strain in democratic theory in which voting is considered not merely a right but a duty. Its purpose is…

compurgation, in early English law, method of settling issues of fact by appeal to a type of character witness. Compurgation was practiced until the 16th century in criminal matters and into the 19th century in civil matters. The essence of the procedure lay in oath making. The party responsible

evidence: Sources of proof: …five separate sources of evidence: witnesses, parties, experts, documents, and real evidence.

Carlos Slim Helú: …electronics products and services company CompUSA in 2000. After realizing that he had misjudged his ability to turn the company around—a rare misstep for Slim—he sold it in 2007. By the following year Slim had become the largest shareholder in the New York Times Company, the financial conglomerate Citigroup, the…

GIF: …by the Internet service provider CompuServe as a means of reducing the size of images and short animations. Because GIF is a lossless data compression format, meaning that no information is lost in the compression, it quickly became a popular format for transmitting and storing graphic files.

history of logic: Effective computability: One of the starting points of recursion theory was the decision problem for first-order logic—i.e., the problem of finding an algorithm or repetitive procedure that would mechanically (i.e., effectively) decide whether a given formula of first-order logic is logically true. A positive solution to…

history of logic: Effective computability: One of the starting points of recursion theory was the decision problem for first-order logic—i.e., the problem of finding an algorithm or repetitive procedure that would mechanically (i.e., effectively) decide whether a given formula of first-order logic is logically true. A positive solution to…

metalogic: Decidability and undecidability: …truth: that all recursive or computable functions and relations are representable in the system (e.g., in N). Since truth in the language of a system is itself not representable (definable) in the system, it cannot, by the lemma, be recursive (i.e., decidable).

algorithm: …number answer is called a computation procedure.

algorithm: …number answer is called a computation procedure.

computational aesthetics, a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) concerned with the computational assessment of beauty in domains of human creative expression such as music, visual art, poetry, and chess problems. Typically, mathematical formulas that represent aesthetic features or principles

computational biology, a branch of biology involving the application of computers and computer science to the understanding and modeling of the structures and processes of life. It entails the use of computational methods (e.g., algorithms) for the representation and simulation of biological

computational complexity, a measure of the amount of computing resources (time and space) that a particular algorithm consumes when it runs. Computer scientists use mathematical measures of complexity that allow them to predict, before writing the code, how fast an algorithm will run and how much

computational linguistics, language analysis that uses computers. Computational analysis is often applied to the handling of basic language data—e.g., making concordances and counting frequencies of sounds, words, and word elements—although numerous other types of linguistic analysis can be

computer science: Computational science: Computational science applies computer simulation, scientific visualization, mathematical modeling, algorithms, data structures, networking, database design, symbolic computation, and high-performance computing to help advance the goals of various disciplines. These disciplines include biology, chemistry, fluid dynamics,

philosophy of mind: The computational-representational theory of thought (CRTT): The idea that thinking and mental processes in general can be treated as computational processes emerged gradually in the work of the computer scientists Allen Newell and Herbert Simon and the philosophers Hilary Putnam, Gilbert Harman, and especially Jerry Fodor.…

semantics: Conceptual-role semantics: In order to avoid having to distinguish between meaning and character, some philosophers, including Gilbert Harman and Ned Block, have recommended supplementing a theory of truth with what is called a conceptual-role semantics (also known as cognitive-role, computational-role, or inferential-role semantics). According to…

computed tomography (CT), diagnostic imaging method using a low-dose beam of X-rays that crosses the body in a single plane at many different angles. CT was conceived by William Oldendorf and developed independently by Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield and Allan MacLeod Cormack, who shared a 1979 Nobel

computer, device for processing, storing, and displaying information. Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery. The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design,

computer animation, form of animated graphics using computers that replaced both “stop-motion” animation of scale-model puppets and hand-drawn animation of drawings. Efforts to lessen the labour and costs of animation have led to simplification and computerization. Computers can be used in every

computer architecture, structure of a digital computer, encompassing the design and layout of its instruction set and storage registers. The architecture of a computer is chosen with regard to the types of programs that will be run on it (business, scientific, general-purpose, etc.). Its principal

computer art, manipulation of computer-generated images (pictures, designs, scenery, portraits, etc.) as part of a purposeful creative process. Specialized software is used together with interactive devices such as digital cameras, optical scanners, styli, and electronic tablets. Because graphic

Compaq: Setting PC standards: …computer, the PS/2, with a bus that was incompatible with the AT-bus design of earlier IBM PCs. (A computer bus is a set of conductors that enable information to be transmitted between computer components, such as printers, modems, and monitors.) Despite having made its fortune by being 100 percent IBM-compatible,…

artificial intelligence: Chess: in 1997, Deep Blue, a chess computer built by IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), beat the reigning world champion, Garry Kasparov, in a six-game match. While Turing’s prediction came true, his expectation that chess programming would contribute to the understanding of how human beings think did not. The huge improvement…

computer chip, integrated circuit or small wafer of semiconductor material embedded with integrated circuitry. Chips comprise the processing and memory units of the modern digital computer (see microprocessor; RAM). Chip making is extremely precise and is usually done in a “clean room,” since even

computer circuitry, complete path or combination of interconnected paths for electron flow in a computer. Computer circuits are binary in concept, having only two possible states. They use on-off switches (transistors) that are electrically opened and closed in nanoseconds and picoseconds

computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language, after a simple substitution process

stagecraft: The computerized controller: Computer controllers—which repeat commands precisely and exactly—changed that. Aided by computers, the console operator could precisely and exactly determine the operational parameters (start time, speed, duration, and so forth) for every piece of powered equipment used in a show. By the turn of the 21st…

stagecraft: The computerized controller: Computer controllers—which repeat commands precisely and exactly—changed that. Aided by computers, the console operator could precisely and exactly determine the operational parameters (start time, speed, duration, and so forth) for every piece of powered equipment used in a show. By the turn of the 21st…

cybercrime, the use of a computer as an instrument to further illegal ends, such as committing fraud, trafficking in child pornography and intellectual property, stealing identities, or violating privacy. Cybercrime, especially through the Internet, has grown in importance as the computer has

Sheldon Adelson: In 1979 Interface launched COMDEX (Computer Dealers Exposition), a computer industry trade show, even though Adelson himself claimed no expertise in computers. COMDEX convened annually in Las Vegas and soon became one of the world’s largest trade shows in its field and the first building block of the Adelson…

cybercrime: Computer viruses: …the United States under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986. On November 2, 1988, a computer science student at Cornell University named Robert Morris released a software “worm” onto the Internet from MIT (as a guest on the campus, he hoped to remain anonymous). The worm was an…

electronic game, any interactive game operated by computer circuitry. The machines, or “platforms,” on which electronic games are played include general-purpose shared and personal computers, arcade consoles, video consoles connected to home television sets, handheld game machines, mobile devices

computer graphics, production of images on computers for use in any medium. Images used in the graphic design of printed material are frequently produced on computers, as are the still and moving images seen in comic strips and animations. The realistic images viewed and manipulated in electronic

cybercrime: Hacking: While breaching privacy to detect cybercrime works well when the crimes involve the theft and misuse of information, ranging from credit card numbers and personal data to file sharing of various commodities—music, video, or child pornography—what of crimes that attempt to wreak havoc on…

hardware, computer machinery and equipment, including memory, cabling, power supply, peripheral devices, and circuit boards. Computer operation requires both hardware and software. Hardware design specifies a computer’s capability; software instructs the computer on what to do. The advent of

computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language, after a simple substitution process

computer memory, device that is used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer. Computers represent information in binary code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s. Each binary digit (or “bit”) may be stored by

liquid: Molecular structure of liquids: A computer model of a liquid is set up, in which between 100 and 1,000 molecules are contained within a cube. There are now two methods of proceeding: by Monte Carlo calculation or by what is called molecular dynamics; only the latter is discussed here. Each…

computerized typesetting: Some systems have a video display terminal (VDT), consisting of a keyboard and a CRT viewing screen, that enables the operator to see and correct the words as they are being typed. If a system has a line printer, it can produce printouts of “hard copy.”

computer music, music utilizing digital computers and other electronic data-processing machinery developed about 1948 in application to musical composition and for musical research. The techniques of computer technology permit the indexing of specific genres, or types, of music (such as

computer network, two or more computers that are connected with one another for the purpose of communicating data electronically. Besides physically connecting computer and communication devices, a network system serves the important function of establishing a cohesive architecture that allows a

automation: Numerical control: …by computer, it is called computer numerical control, or CNC. Another variation in the implementation of numerical control involves sending part programs over telecommunications lines from a central computer to individual machine tools in the factory, thus eliminating the use of the punched tape altogether. This form of numerical control…

computer numerical control (CNC), in manufacturing, the control of a device, particularly machine tools, by direct input of data from a computer program. It is a principal element of computer-integrated manufacturing. CNC is also essential to the operation of industrial robots. CNC systems often

electronic organ: …was used to operate a computer organ. In this device, sounds are not created internally but have been prerecorded (sampled) and stored in the computer from which they can later be retrieved. Musical tones or shapes—recorded from conventional windblown pipe organs—are coded into digital form and may be re-created by…

peripheral device, any of various devices (including sensors) used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to a human operator or, in some cases, a machine controlled by the computer. Such devices make up the peripheral

computer program, detailed plan or procedure for solving a problem with a computer; more specifically, an unambiguous, ordered sequence of computational instructions necessary to achieve such a solution. The distinction between computer programs and equipment is often made by referring to the

computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language, after a simple substitution process

computer science, the study of computers and computing, including their theoretical and algorithmic foundations, hardware and software, and their uses for processing information. The discipline of computer science includes the study of algorithms and data structures, computer and network design,

computer: The Internet: …of a supplementary network, the Computer Science Network (CSNET). Built in 1980, CSNET was made available, on a subscription basis, to a wide array of academic, government, and industry research labs. As the 1980s wore on, further networks were added. In North America there were (among others): BITNET (Because It’s…

computer scripting language, a computer language intended to solve relatively small programming problems that do not require the overhead of data declarations and other features needed to make large programs manageable. Scripting languages are used for writing operating system utilities, for

computer security, the protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft, and unauthorized use. Computer hardware is typically protected by the same means used to protect other valuable or sensitive equipment—namely, serial numbers, doors and locks, and alarms. The protection of

Edsger Dijkstra: …in 1968 the concept of computer semaphores, which are used in concurrent programming in virtually every modern operating system.

computer simulation, the use of a computer to represent the dynamic responses of one system by the behaviour of another system modeled after it. A simulation uses a mathematical description, or model, of a real system in the form of a computer program. This model is composed of equations that

computer program, detailed plan or procedure for solving a problem with a computer; more specifically, an unambiguous, ordered sequence of computational instructions necessary to achieve such a solution. The distinction between computer programs and equipment is often made by referring to the