coin glass, glassware usually in the form of wineglasses, goblets, or tankards enclosing a coin either in the foot, or in the hollow knop of the stem, rarely in an interior bulb. A Venetian specimen of coin glass dated 1647 is known, but the principal occurrence is in English glass from about 1650

coinage, certification of a piece of metal or other material (such as leather or porcelain) as being of a specific intrinsic or exchange value. Croesus (reigned c. 560–546 bce) is generally credited with issuing the first official government coins of certified purity and weight. Counterfeiting was

belote: …as belote coinchée or just coinche, that developed in the latter half of the 20th century.

Buffy Sainte-Marie: Later career: She released the album Coincidence (and Likely Stories) (1992), which featured the pointed political commentary “Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee” as well as a new version of “Starwalker” (originally released in 1976) that incorporated samples from the Ironwood Singers, a highly regarded Northern Plains powwow drum group. She…

coincidence counting, in physics, the almost simultaneous detection of two nuclear or subatomic particles (e.g., within a time of 10−5 second). Coincidence counting involves two or more particle counters exposed to the same source of particles and connected to an electronic coincidence circuit. One

dark energy: …is known as the “coincidence problem” or the “fine-tuning problem.” Understanding the nature of dark energy and its many related problems is one of the most formidable challenges in modern physics.

range finder: The coincidence range finder, used chiefly in cameras and for surveying, consists of an arrangement of lenses and prisms set at each end of a tube with a single eyepiece at its centre. This instrument enables the user to sight an object by correcting the parallax…

personal identity: Coincident entities: A powerful set of criticisms, raised in the late 20th century, has to do with the intuitively plausible assumption that persons are human animals. Although (as mentioned earlier) most versions of the psychological view assume that persons are physical entities, they are committed…

André Coindre was the founder of the Fratres a Sacratissimo Corde Iesu (Brothers of the Sacred Heart), a Roman Catholic religious order primarily devoted to high school and elementary school education; the brotherhood is also a missionary society. Coindre, in his formative years, witnessed the

The Counterfeiters, novel by André Gide, published in French in 1926 as Les Faux-Monnayeurs. Constructed with a greater range and scope than his previous short fiction, The Counterfeiters is Gide’s most complex and intricately plotted work. It is a novel within a novel, concerning the relatives and

metallurgy: Forging: …special names are upsetting and coining. Coining takes its name from the final stage of forming metal coins, where the desired imprint is formed on a smooth metal disk that is pressed in a closed die. Coining involves small strains and is done cold to enhance surface definition and smoothness.…

Diane Wakoski: Her collection Coins & Coffins (1962), the first of more than 60 published volumes, contains the poem “Justice Is Reason Enough,” about the suicide of an imaginary twin brother. In The George Washington Poems (1967), Wakoski addressed Washington as an archetypal figure. She dedicated The Motorcycle Betrayal…

insurance: Limitations on amount recoverable: …less than 80 percent, a coinsurance clause is triggered, the operation of which reduces the recovery amount to the value of the loss times the ratio of the amount of insurance actually carried to the amount equal to 80 percent of the value of the property. However, the reduced recovery…

Clive W.J. Granger: …which he invented the term cointegration. Through his cointegration analysis, Granger showed that the dynamics in exchange rates and prices, for example, are driven by a tendency to smooth out deviations from the long-run equilibrium exchange rate and short-run fluctuations around the adjustment path.

COINTELPRO, counterintelligence program conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1956 to 1971 to discredit and neutralize organizations considered subversive to U.S. political stability. It was covert and often used extralegal means to criminalize various forms of political

Coipasa Salt Flat, salt flat, in the arid but colourful Altiplano of Bolivia, about 100 miles (160 km) southwest of the city of Oruro, near the Chilean border. At an elevation of 12,073 feet (3,680 metres), the flat, Bolivia’s second largest (after Uyuni Salt Flat), occupies 856 square miles (2,218

Coipasa Salt Flat, salt flat, in the arid but colourful Altiplano of Bolivia, about 100 miles (160 km) southwest of the city of Oruro, near the Chilean border. At an elevation of 12,073 feet (3,680 metres), the flat, Bolivia’s second largest (after Uyuni Salt Flat), occupies 856 square miles (2,218

Coipasa Salt Flat, salt flat, in the arid but colourful Altiplano of Bolivia, about 100 miles (160 km) southwest of the city of Oruro, near the Chilean border. At an elevation of 12,073 feet (3,680 metres), the flat, Bolivia’s second largest (after Uyuni Salt Flat), occupies 856 square miles (2,218

coir, seed-hair fibre obtained from the outer shell, or husk, of the coconut. The coarse, stiff, reddish brown fibre is made up of smaller threads, each about 0.03 to 0.1 cm (0.01 to 0.04 inch) long and 12 to 24 microns (a micron is about 0.00004 inch) in diameter, composed of lignin, a woody plant

Chur, capital, Graubünden (Grisons) canton, eastern Switzerland. It lies on the Plessur River in the Rhine Valley. The meeting point of roads from Italy over several Alpine passes, it was important in Roman times as Curia Raetorum, the centre of the Roman province of Raetia. First mentioned in 452

Chur, capital, Graubünden (Grisons) canton, eastern Switzerland. It lies on the Plessur River in the Rhine Valley. The meeting point of roads from Italy over several Alpine passes, it was important in Roman times as Curia Raetorum, the centre of the Roman province of Raetia. First mentioned in 452

Celtic literature: The 17th century: …Mackay (Am Pìobaire Dall), whose Coire an Easa (“The Waterfall Corrie”) was significant in the development of Gaelic nature poetry; John Macdonald (Iain Dubh Mac Iain ’Ic Ailein), who wrote popular jingles; and John Maclean (Iain Mac Ailein), who showed an interest in early Gaelic legend. Finally, bardic poetry continued…

Public Works of Art Project: …murals by various hands in Coit Memorial Tower at San Francisco; Grant Wood’s cooperative mural in Iowa State College (now Iowa State University) at Ames; Ben Shahn’s mural designs on the theme of Prohibition; and Paul Cadmus’s The Fleet’s In, which caused a scandal at the PWAP’s 1934 national exhibition…

Public Works of Art Project: …murals by various hands in Coit Memorial Tower at San Francisco; Grant Wood’s cooperative mural in Iowa State College (now Iowa State University) at Ames; Ben Shahn’s mural designs on the theme of Prohibition; and Paul Cadmus’s The Fleet’s In, which caused a scandal at the PWAP’s 1934 national exhibition…

social settlement: …the West London Ethical Society, Stanton Coit, an early visitor to Toynbee Hall, established Neighborhood Guild, now University Settlement, on the Lower East Side of New York City in 1886. In Chicago in 1889, Jane Addams bought a residence on the West Side that came to be known as Hull…

Volcher Coiter was a physician who established the study of comparative osteology and first described cerebrospinal meningitis. Through a grant from Groningen, he studied in Italy and France and was a pupil of Fallopius, Eustachius, Arantius, and Rondelet. He became city physician of Nürnberg

sexual intercourse, reproductive act in which the male reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals) enters the female reproductive tract. If the reproductive act is complete, sperm cells are passed from the male body into the female, in the process fertilizing the female’s egg and

contraception: Coitus interruptus, or withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation, is one of the oldest methods, and, though it is not reliable, it is still widely practiced. Documents surviving from ancient Egypt record various methods for averting conception. The most lucid and detailed early account of…

Job’s tears, (Coix lacryma-jobi), cereal grass of the family Poaceae, native to tropical Asia. Job’s tears receives its name from the hard shiny tear-shaped structures that enclose the seed kernels; those beadlike pseudocarps are sometimes used for jewelry and rosaries. Forms of the plant are

Choybalsan, town, eastern Mongolia, on the Kerulen River. First a monastic centre and later a trading town on the Siberia–China route, it was named to honour Khorloghiyin Chojbalsan, a communist hero of the 1921 Mongolian revolution. With the construction of a branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway

Cojedes, inland estado (state), northwestern Venezuela. It is surrounded by the states of Yaracuy and Carabobo on the north, Guárico on the east, Barinas on the south, Portuguesa on the west, and Lara on the northwest. Since colonial days, cattle raising has dominated the local economy, but plant

Corazon Aquino was a Philippine political leader who served as the first female president (1986–92) of the Philippines, restoring democratic rule in that country after the long dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos. Corazon Cojuangco was born into a wealthy, politically prominent family based in Tarlac

Cojutepeque, city, central El Salvador. It is located near Lake Ilopango on the Inter-American Highway (a section of the Pan-American Highway), at the northern foot of the Las Pavas Hills. Cojutepeque was a settlement for the Pipil Indians in pre-Columbian times. Founded in 1571, it was declared a

Roberto Crispulo Goizueta: …the simultaneous withdrawal of original Coke. Customers displeased with the taste of New Coke stopped buying the product. Goizueta eventually appeased Coke’s unhappy customer base by remarketing the original formula as Classic Coke.

coke, solid residue remaining after certain types of bituminous coals are heated to a high temperature out of contact with air until substantially all of the volatile constituents have been driven off. The residue is chiefly carbon, with minor amounts of hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. Also

iron processing: Sintering: …of fine coke (known as coke breeze) within the ore generates the necessary heat. Before being delivered to the sinter machine, the ore mixture is moistened to cause fine particles to stick to larger ones, and then the appropriate amount of coke is added. Initially, coke on the upper surface…

petroleum refining: Visbreaking, thermal cracking, and coking: …a large vessel called a coke drum for extensive and controlled cracking. The cracked lighter product rises to the top of the drum and is drawn off. It is then charged to the product fractionator for separation into naphtha, diesel oils, and heavy gas oils for further processing in the…

coal utilization: Coke ovens: Modern coke ovens can be as large as 6.5 metres (21 feet) high, 15.5 metres (50 feet) long, and 0.46 metre (1.5 feet) wide, each oven holding up to about 36 tons of coal. The coking time (i.e., between charging and discharging) is…

hartebeest: One well-known variety, Coke’s hartebeest, or the kongoni (A. buselaphus cokei), of East Africa, is the plainest and smallest subspecies, measuring 117 cm (46 inches) high and weighing 142 kg (312 pounds). This subspecies is lion-coloured, with no conspicuous markings except a white rump patch; it has a…

Pinxton porcelain: The factory was established by John Coke, who had lived in Dresden, Saxony, with the help of William Billingsley, who had worked as a painter at Derby. Billingsley remained at Pinxton until 1799, concentrating on the production of the porcelain rather than its decoration. He made a ware that contained…

Sir Edward Coke was a British jurist and politician whose defense of the supremacy of the common law against Stuart claims of royal prerogative had a profound influence on the development of English law and the English constitution. Coke was educated at Norwich Grammar School and Trinity College,

Thomas Coke was an English clergyman, the first bishop of the Methodist Church, founder of its missions, and friend of Methodism’s founder, John Wesley, who called Coke his “right hand.” Coke was ordained an Anglican priest in 1772 and served as curate at South Petherton, Somerset, from 1772 to

Hartsville: …Coast Line, and eventually founded Coker College (1908). The community developed into an agricultural trade centre and acquired factories making textiles and paper and plastics and building boats. It also became noted for its production of pedigreed seeds. The Coker Experimental Farms were designated a national historic landmark in 1964.…

Hartsville: …Coast Line, and eventually founded Coker College (1908). The community developed into an agricultural trade centre and acquired factories making textiles and paper and plastics and building boats. It also became noted for its production of pedigreed seeds. The Coker Experimental Farms were designated a national historic landmark in 1964.…

petroleum refining: Visbreaking, thermal cracking, and coking: Since World War II the demand for light products (e.g., gasoline, jet, and diesel fuels) has grown, while the requirement for heavy industrial fuel oils has declined. Furthermore, many of the new sources of crude petroleum (California, Alaska, Venezuela, and Mexico) have yielded heavier…

coal utilization: Coking coals: Although chemical composition alone cannot be used to predict whether a coal is suitable for coking, prime coking coals generally have volatile matter contents of 20 to 32 percent—i.e., the low- and medium-volatile bituminous ranks. When heated in the absence of air, these…

Chokwe, Bantu-speaking people who inhabit the southern part of Congo (Kinshasa) from the Kwango River to the Lualaba; northeastern Angola; and, since 1920, the northwestern corner of Zambia. They live in woodland savanna intersected with strips of rainforest along the rivers, swamps, and

arête: …a low, smooth gap, or col. An arête may culminate in a high triangular peak or horn (such as the Matterhorn) formed by three or more glaciers eroding toward each other.

plasmid: One class of plasmids, colicinogenic (or Col ) factors, determines the production of proteins called colicins, which have antibiotic activity and can kill other bacteria. Another class of plasmids, R factors, confers upon bacteria resistance to antibiotics. Some Col factors and R factors can transfer themselves from one cell…

Cola, genus of tropical trees of the chocolate family (Sterculiaceae, order Malvales) that bear fruits enclosing large kola, or cola, nuts containing caffeine, tannin, and theobromine. Though native to Africa, two species especially, Cola acuminata and C. nitida, are grown commercially in various

Cola: …to Africa, two species especially, Cola acuminata and C. nitida, are grown commercially in various tropical regions around the world, the dried kola nuts being used in manufacturing the popular soft drink called cola. The cola drink consists of flavouring extracts of kola nut, spice oils, and other aromatics (and…

Cola Di Rienzo was an Italian popular leader who tried to restore the greatness of ancient Rome. He later became the subject of literature and song, including a novel by the English novelist E.G.E. Bulwer-Lytton (1835) and an opera by Richard Wagner (1842), both entitled Rienzi. He was the son of a

Chola dynasty, South Indian Tamil rulers of unknown antiquity, antedating the early Sangam poems (c. 200 ce). The dynasty originated in the rich Kaveri (Cauvery) River valley. Uraiyur (now Tiruchchirappalli) was its oldest capital. The legendary King Karikalan was the common ancestor through whom

Cola: …fruits enclosing large kola, or cola, nuts containing caffeine, tannin, and theobromine. Though native to Africa, two species especially, Cola acuminata and C. nitida, are grown commercially in various tropical regions around the world, the dried kola nuts being used in manufacturing the popular soft drink called cola. The cola…

kola nut, caffeine-containing nut of Cola acuminata and Cola nitida, trees of the cocoa family (Sterculiaceae) native to tropical Africa and cultivated extensively in the American tropics. The evergreen tree grows to 18.3 metres (60 feet) and resembles the chestnut. The 5-centimetre- (2-inch-) long

Colac, city, southern Victoria, Australia, on the southern shore of shallow Lake Colac. It serves as a gateway to the Otway Ranges to the south and Great Otway National Park. The city’s name is of uncertain Aboriginal origin, possibly tracing to a term meaning “sand” or “freshwater lake” or to the

algae: Annotated classification: …approximately 1,000 described species; includes Colacium, Euglena, Eutreptiella, and Phacus.

Kolleru Lake, lake in northeastern Andhra Pradesh state, southern India. It lies between the Godavari and Krishna river deltas near the city of Eluru. During the height of the summer monsoon rainy season, the lake may expand to 100 square miles (260 square km). Carp and prawns are fished

Trinity College Dublin, the oldest university in Ireland, founded in 1592 by Queen Elizabeth I of England and Ireland and endowed by the city of Dublin. The two names of the school—the University of Dublin and Trinity College Dublin—are used interchangeably, though there are legal and other

Guardians of the Galaxy: …writer Arnold Drake and artist Gene Colan. The group debuted in Marvel Super-Heroes no. 18 (January 1969).

flicker, any of several New World woodpeckers of the genus Colaptes, family Picidae (q.v.), that are noted for spending much time on the ground eating ants. The flicker’s sticky saliva is alkaline, perhaps to counteract the formic acid that ants secrete. Its bill is slenderer than in most

flicker: …and varied head markings—include the yellow-shafted flicker (C. auratus) of eastern North America, which has more than 100 local names. This golden-winged form, which measures about 33 cm (13 inches) in length, is replaced in the West (to Alaska) by the red-shafted flicker (C. cafer), considered by many authorities to…

flicker: …West (to Alaska) by the red-shafted flicker (C. cafer), considered by many authorities to represent the same species as the yellow-shafted because the two forms hybridize frequently. The campos, or pampas, flicker (C. campestris) and the field flicker (C. campestroides)—sometimes considered to be a single species—are common in east-central South…

flicker: The campos, or pampas, flicker (C. campestris) and the field flicker (C. campestroides)—sometimes considered to be a single species—are common in east-central South America; they are darker birds with yellow faces and breasts.

flicker: campestris) and the field flicker (C. campestroides)—sometimes considered to be a single species—are common in east-central South America; they are darker birds with yellow faces and breasts.

Canadian literature: After the British conquest, 1763–1830: …for amateur actors; his comedy Colas et Colinette (1808; Eng. trans. Colas et Colinette), first acted on stage in 1790, was revived as a radio play in 1968.

Cheers: …absentminded but lovable Coach (Nicholas Colasanto, 1982–85), an associate from Sam’s days with the Red Sox, and, later in the series, Woody Boyd (Woody Harrelson, 1985–93), a naive, dim-witted Hoosier. Rounding out the staff were tiny acid-tongued waitress Carla (Rhea Perlman) and Rebecca Howe (Kirstie Alley

Colatina, city, central Espírito Santo estado (state), eastern Brazil, located on the Doce River about 60 miles (100 km) from its mouth on the Atlantic coast, at 131 feet (40 metres) above sea level. Given city status in 1921, Colatina is a transportation, trade, and manufacturing centre for the

Cleveland Guardians: Second World Series title and the curse of Rocky Colavito: …period to the “curse of Rocky Colavito,” visited on the Indians in 1960 when the team traded Colavito, the AL’s leading home-run hitter, in 1959 to the Detroit Tigers for Harvey Kuenn, who had led the league in batting averages.

Henry Wilson was the 18th vice president of the United States (1873–75) in the Republican administration of President Ulysses S. Grant and a national leader in the antislavery movement. Wilson was the son of Winthrop Colbath, Jr., a labourer, and Abigail Witham. Indentured as a farm labourer at age

Ross Sea: …Land on the west and Cape Colbeck on Edward VII Peninsula on the east. The northern limit lies approximately along the edge of the continental shelf and the southern limit along a great barrier wall of ice marking the front of the Ross Ice Shelf.

Television in the United States: The late shows: …another half-hour show at 11:30, The Colbert Report, which featured former Daily Show “correspondent” Stephen Colbert as the host of a parody of cable series such as The O’Reilly Factor.

Claudette Colbert was an American stage and motion-picture actress known for her trademark bangs, her velvety purring voice, her confident intelligent style, and her subtle graceful acting. Colbert moved with her family to New York City about 1910. While studying fashion design, she landed a small

Scutellosaurus: …the remains to American paleontologist E.H. Colbert at the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff. In 1981 Colbert described the remains (collected by a Harvard University field party in 1977), along with a second specimen, as Scutellosaurus lawleri. The remains of six additional specimens were recovered from other Kayenta localities…

Jean-Baptiste Colbert was a French statesman who served as comptroller general of finance (1665–83) and secretary of state for the navy (1668–83) under King Louis XIV of France. He carried out the program of economic reconstruction that helped make France the dominant power in Europe. Colbert was

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Seignelay was the French secretary of state under Louis XIV. As the eldest son of the famous secretary of state of that name, Colbert was given the best possible tutors, who found him bright but lazy. In 1683 Colbert became head of the navy and performed

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy was a French diplomat and foreign minister who negotiated some of the most important treaties of Louis XIV’s reign. The son of Charles Colbert, minister of foreign affairs, Torcy was a brilliant student, earning a law degree (1683) at so young an age that he

Stephen Colbert is an American actor and comedian who was best known as the host of The Colbert Report (2005–14), an ironic send-up of television news programs, and The Late Show with Stephen Colbert (2015– ). After graduating with a theatre degree (1986) from Northwestern University in Evanston,

Stephen Colbert is an American actor and comedian who was best known as the host of The Colbert Report (2005–14), an ironic send-up of television news programs, and The Late Show with Stephen Colbert (2015– ). After graduating with a theatre degree (1986) from Northwestern University in Evanston,

Gioachino Rossini: Italian period: …other than the imposing diva Isabella Colbran?

Irving Wightman Colburn was an American inventor and manufacturer whose process for fabricating continuous sheets of flat glass formed the basis of the Libbey-Owens Sheet Glass Company. After an unsuccessful manufacturing venture, Colburn sold his patents to financial interests in Toledo, Ohio, in

Colby College, private, coeducational institution of higher learning in Waterville, Maine, U.S. Colby is an undergraduate college with a curriculum based in the liberal arts and sciences. It offers study-abroad programs in France, Spain, Ireland, Mexico, England, and Russia. Campus facilities

Worland: The Colby Site, 2.5 miles (4 km) east of Worland, marks a large mammoth kill site from which prehistoric Clovis culture projectile points have been recovered. Inc. town, 1906; city, 1956. Pop. (2000) 5,250; (2010) 5,487.

Frank Moore Colby was an American encyclopaedia editor and essayist. Early in his career Colby taught history and economics at Columbia University, Amherst College (Amherst, Mass.), and New York University (New York City). To supplement his income, he began writing for encyclopaedias, and so began

Myra Bradwell was an American lawyer and editor who was involved in several landmark cases concerning the legal rights of women. Myra Colby grew up in Portage, New York, and from 1843 in Schaumburg township, near Elgin, Illinois. She was educated in schools in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and Elgin. After a

William Colby was a U.S. government official who pursued a policy of openness during his turbulent tenure (1973–76) as director of the CIA. He showed unusual candour while testifying before Congress in 1975 in the wake of various leaks about CIA covert operations, such as spying on American

William Colby was a U.S. government official who pursued a policy of openness during his turbulent tenure (1973–76) as director of the CIA. He showed unusual candour while testifying before Congress in 1975 in the wake of various leaks about CIA covert operations, such as spying on American

Colchester, town and borough (district), administrative and historic county of Essex, England. It occupies the northeastern part of the county on the River Colne. As Camulodunum, the town of Colchester was the capital of the pre-Roman Belgic ruler Cunobelinus and is so named on his coins. Although

Colchester: borough (district), administrative and historic county of Essex, England. It occupies the northeastern part of the county on the River Colne.

Colchester, town and borough (district), administrative and historic county of Essex, England. It occupies the northeastern part of the county on the River Colne. As Camulodunum, the town of Colchester was the capital of the pre-Roman Belgic ruler Cunobelinus and is so named on his coins. Although

oyster: …regions); as well as the colchester of Britain and the marennes of France. The colchester and marennes are forms of O. edulis.

Colchester: Colchester’s castle keep (built about 1080) is the largest of its kind in England and now houses a museum of Romano-British antiquities. Holy Trinity Church (1050) has a late Saxon tower, and the Augustinian St. Botolph’s Priory retains part of the Norman west front, nave,…

Caucasus: …diversity since early times: the Colchians, for example, as described in the 5th century bce by the Greek historian Herodotus, were black-skinned Egyptians, though their true origin remains unclear. In subsequent centuries, successive waves of peoples migrating across Eurasia added to and were molded by the more established groups in…

Liliales: Major families: …are members of the family Colchicaceae, which is now circumscribed to include the temperate woodland herb genus Uvularia. Colchicaceae, which is distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical regions, is characterized by the presence of alkaloids.

colchicine, drug used in the treatment of gout, a disease that is characterized by severe inflammation in one or more of the joints of the extremities. Colchicine is obtained from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). The mechanism by which colchicine relieves the pain of gout, which is caused

Colchicum, genus of flowering plants in the family Colchicaceae, consisting of about 30 species of herbs native to Eurasia. The stemless, crocuslike flowers bloom in autumn, and some are variously called autumn crocus and meadow saffron. The fruit is a three-valved capsule that ripens in the spring

Colchis, ancient region at the eastern end of the Black Sea south of the Caucasus, in the western part of modern Georgia. It consisted of the valley of the Phasis (modern Rioni) River. In Greek mythology, Colchis was the home of Medea and the destination of the Argonauts, a land of fabulous wealth

Kolkhida, coastal lowland plain of the eastern Black Sea, in Georgia. Named for the ancient kingdom of Colchis, it comprises the combined alluvial plains of the Rioni, Inguri, and other rivers rising in the Greater Caucasus range, which encloses the plain on the north, and the Lesser Caucasus, to

Antarctica: Climate of Antarctica: By far the coldest continent, Antarctica has winter temperatures that range from −128.6 °F (−89.2 °C), the world’s lowest recorded temperature, measured at Vostok Station (Russia) on July 21, 1983, on the high inland ice sheet to −76 °F (−60 °C) near sea level. Temperatures vary greatly from…

climatic adaptation: Cold adaptation is of three types: adaptation to extreme cold, moderate cold, and night cold. Extreme cold favours short, round persons with short arms and legs, flat faces with fat pads over the sinuses, narrow noses, and a heavier-than-average layer of body fat. These adaptations…