Italy: The southern kingdoms and the Papal States: …families of the Ventimiglia, the Chiaramonte, and the Passaneto—men so powerful that contemporaries described them as “semi-kings,” having below them some 200 lesser, poor, and violent vassals. In these years, with an economy dominated largely by Catalan merchants, Sicily looked to Aragon (which in 1326 had also gained control of…

Vatican Museums and Galleries: The Chiaramonti Sculpture Gallery (Museo Chiaramonti), established by Pope Pius VII in the 19th century and designed by the sculptor Antonio Canova, is also devoted to ancient sculpture. It has three parts: the museum, in a gallery designed by Donato Bramante; the New Wing (Braccio Nuovo);…

Pius VII was an Italian pope from 1800 to 1823, whose dramatic conflicts with Napoleon led to a restoration of the church after the armies of the French Revolution had devastated the papacy under Pius VI. He became a Benedictine at Cesena in 1758 and was made cardinal and bishop of Imola, Papal

Carlo, Conte Gozzi: …against the dramatic innovations of Pietro Chiari and Carlo Goldoni. Admired in Italy and elsewhere in Europe, Gozzi’s dramas became the basis of many subsequent theatrical and musical works.

Panama: World War II and mid-century intrigues: …the presidential election of 1960, Roberto F. Chiari emerged victorious. Despite a national debt of about $83 million and a budget deficit of some $10 million, he plunged into a vast program of slum clearance, housing, hospital construction, and health service. Arnulfo Arias also championed those efforts, and he became…

galactorrhea: …recent pregnancy, is called the Chiari–Frommel syndrome. Galactorrhea in a woman who has never been pregnant is termed the Ahumada–del Castillo, or the Argonz–del Castillo, syndrome. Such galactorrhea appears to result from excesses of secretion from the pituitary eosinophils.

chiaroscuro, (from Italian chiaro, “light,” and scuro, “dark”), technique employed in the visual arts to represent light and shadow as they define three-dimensional objects. Some evidence exists that ancient Greek and Roman artists used chiaroscuro effects, but in European painting the technique

chiaroscuro: …the graphic arts, the term chiaroscuro refers to a particular technique for making a woodcut print in which effects of light and shade are produced by printing each tone from a different wood block. The technique was first used in woodcuts in Italy in the 16th century, probably by the…

mental disorder: Early history: …in 1796, and the physician Vincenzo Chiarugi, who published a humanitarian regime for his hospital in Florence in 1788. In the mid-19th century Dorothea Dix led a campaign to increase public awareness of the inhumane conditions that prevailed in American mental hospitals. Her efforts led to widespread reforms both in…

heredity: Simple linkage: Furthermore, Morgan perceived that the chiasmata (crosses that occur in meiotic chromosomes) indicate the mechanism underlying the phenomena of linkage and crossing over. As shown schematically in the diagram of chromosomes at meiosis, the maternal and paternal chromosomes (represented in blue and red) cross over and exchange segments, so a…

heredity: Simple linkage: Furthermore, Morgan perceived that the chiasmata (crosses that occur in meiotic chromosomes) indicate the mechanism underlying the phenomena of linkage and crossing over. As shown schematically in the diagram of chromosomes at meiosis, the maternal and paternal chromosomes (represented in blue and red) cross over and exchange segments, so a…

perciform: Annotated classification: Family Chiasmodontidae (swallowers) Slender fishes with extremely deeply cleft mouth; large backward-pointing teeth; dorsal fin long with spinous and soft dorsals separate; pelvic fins thoracic. Capable of swallowing and holding in their greatly distensible bellies fishes larger than themselves. About 15 species in open oceanic waters down…

Canadian literature: The Quiet Revolution of French Canadian minorities: …writers includes poet and playwright Herménégilde Chiasson (Mourir à Scoudouc [1974; “To Die at Scoudouc”], Conversations [1998; Eng. trans. Conversations]) and postmodern novelist France Daigle. Acadian literature excels in lyric poetry, represented by authors who include Raymond Leblanc, Dyane Léger, and Serge Patrice Thibodeau.

chiastolite, a variety of the mineral andalusite

mineral deposit: Manganese deposits: Named Chiatura and Nikopol after two cities in Georgia and Ukraine, they contain an estimated 70 percent of the world’s known resources of high-grade manganese.

Chiatura, city, central Georgia. Chiatura lies along the Kvirila River in a deep trench in the southern foothills of the Greater Caucasus range. It is the centre of one of the largest manganese-mining areas of the world. The ore, which was first discovered in 1849, has been exploited since 1879.

Chiavari, town, Liguria regione, northwestern Italy. It lies on the Riviera di Levante at the mouth of the Entella River, east of Genoa. The town grew up on the traces of a Roman camp on the Via Aurelia. A pre-Roman necropolis dating from the 8th to 7th century bc has been uncovered there. The old

Western architecture: Russia: Peter’s principal architect, Gaetano Chiaveri, who drew heavily on northern Italian models, is most noted for the library of the Academy of Sciences (1725) and the royal churches of Warsaw and Dresden. Bartolomeo Rastrelli was responsible for all large building projects under the reign of Elizabeth, and among…

Chia-i, shih (municipality) and seat of Chia-i hsien (county), on the western coastal plain of Taiwan. It lies at the foot of the A-li Mountains, on Taiwan’s main north–south rail and highway routes. Narrow-gauge branch railways built by the Japanese (who occupied Taiwan from 1895 to 1945) run from

Chia-i, county (hsien, or xian), west-central Taiwan. Chia-i city, in the eastern part of the county, is the administrative seat. The county is bounded by Yün-lin (Yunlin) and Nan-t’ou (Nantou) counties to the north, by Kao-hsiung (Gaoxiong) and T’ai-nan (Tainan) special municipalities to the east

Chiba, city, capital of Chiba ken (prefecture), in east-central Honshu, Japan. It lies on the Bōsō Peninsula on the east coast of Tokyo Bay, about 20 miles (30 km) southeast of central Tokyo, and is a major component of the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolitan area. Chiba was a castle town controlled by the

xiao: …variant of the xiao, the nanyin dongxiao (“southern sound notched flute”), or chiba (literally “one foot, eight inches”) found mainly in Fujian and Taiwan, varies in length from roughly 13 to 16 inches (34 to 43 cm) and uses the bamboo root as its bottom. The number and arrangement of…

Chiba, ken (prefecture), east-central Honshu, Japan. It lies on the Pacific coast of the Kantō Plain and consists largely of the Bōsō Peninsula, which constitutes the eastern side of Tokyo Bay and is bordered to the north by the Tone River. Chiba city, on the northeastern coast of the bay, is the

Pacific League: The league consists of the Chiba Lotte Marines, Fukuoka Softbank Hawks, Hokkaido Nippon Ham Fighters, Orix Buffaloes, Saitama Seibu Lions, and Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles. The regular playing season culminates in the Japan Series, a seven-game series between the respective champion teams of the Pacific and

Chibcha, South American Indians who at the time of the Spanish conquest occupied the high valleys surrounding the modern cities of Bogotá and Tunja in Colombia. With a population of more than 500,000, they were notable for being more centralized politically than any other South American people

Tsáchila, Indian people of the Pacific coast of Ecuador. They live in the tropical lowlands of the northwest, where, along with the neighbouring Chachi, they are the last remaining aboriginal group. The Tsáchila are linguistically related to the Chachi, although their Chibchan languages are

Chibchan languages, a group of South American Indian languages that were spoken before ce 1500 in the area now comprising Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, western Colombia, and Ecuador. A now extinct Chibchan language sometimes known as Muisca was the language of a powerful Indian empire with its

Frederick Sanger: Insulin research: Biochemist Albert C. Chibnall and his protein research group moved from Imperial College in London to the safer wartime environment of the biochemistry department at Cambridge. Two schools of thought existed among protein researchers at the time. One group thought proteins were complex mixtures that would…

Chibougamau, city, Nord-du-Québec region, central Quebec province, Canada. It lies on the northwest shore of the Lac Doré part of Chibougamau Lake. Gold and copper were discovered in the area by Peter McKenzie in 1903, but his and several subsequent attempts at mining the ore failed because of the

Maya Chiburdanidze is a women’s world chess champion from 1978 to 1991. She won the title at the age of 17 by defeating fellow Georgian Nona Gaprindashvili. Chiburdanidze became an international master in 1978 and an international grandmaster in 1984. Her style of play was solid, but aggressive,

Ukhta, industrial city, Komi republic, northwestern Russia, on the Ukhta River. It was founded as the village of Chibyu in 1931 and became a city in 1943, when it was linked to the Pechora railway. Ukhta lies within the Pechora Basin, a significant oil and natural gas area. Some oil is refined

Appalachian Mountains: Physiography: …in the northern area, the Shickshocks (French: Chic-Chocs) and the Notre Dame ranges in Quebec; the Long Range on the island of Newfoundland; the great monadnock (isolated hill of bedrock) of Mount Katahdin in Maine; the White Mountains of New Hampshire;

Srikakulam, city, northeastern Andhra Pradesh state, southern India. The city lies on a low-lying plain along the Nagavali River, about 5 miles (8 km) from the Bay of Bengal. Srikakulam once served as the capital of a Muslim region that was known as the Northern Circārs (Northern Sarkārs). Of

Chicago, rock band, among the most popular American recording artists of all time, with sales of more than 100 million records. Initially a jazz-rock unit, Chicago thrived as it moved toward a lighter, ballad-oriented rock style. Its original members were Terry Kath (b. Jan. 31, 1946, Chicago,

Chicago, American musical film, released in 2002, that was based on Bob Fosse’s 1975 Broadway play, with songs by John Kander and Fred Ebb. The movie, directed and choreographed by Rob Marshall, was a popular and critical success, winning six Academy Awards, including best picture. The movie begins

Alaa al-Aswany: ) Aswany’s next novel, Chicago (2007), seems to mirror his own experiences as a student in the Midwestern city, although his story is set after the September 11 attacks, years after he actually resided in Chicago. It follows the lives of students and professors at a medical school through…

Chicago, city, seat of Cook county, northeastern Illinois, U.S. With a population hovering near three million, Chicago is the state’s largest and the country’s third most populous city. In addition, the greater Chicagoland area—which encompasses northeastern Illinois and extends into southeastern

Sam Shepard: …Voice newspaper) for his plays Chicago, Icarus’s Mother, and Red Cross.

Carl Sandburg: …joined the staff of the Chicago Daily News.

billiards: Pocket billiards, or pool: …pool is rotation, or “Chicago,” in which the object is to pocket the balls in numerical order, starting with the lowest number. The numbers of the balls are added up to determine the winner of the game. In so-called straight pool (also called 14.1 continuous pool, or rack pool),…

Christie Brinkley: …revival of the musical play Chicago. She also played the character in the national touring company and on London’s West End.Brinkley reprised the role in 2019 at the Venetian Theatre, Las Vegas.

Then the second most populous city in the United States, Chicago had the potential talent and market to sustain a substantial music industry—but it rarely did so. The city did support a vibrant jazz scene during Prohibition and was the leading recording centre for artists supplying the “race”

Art Institute of Chicago, museum in Chicago, Illinois, U.S., featuring European, American, and Asian sculpture, paintings, prints and drawings, decorative arts, photography, textiles, and arms and armour, as well as African, pre-Columbian American, and ancient art. The museum contains more than

Cool Papa Bell: …the Pittsburgh Crawfords (1933–37), the Chicago American Giants (1942–43), and the Homestead Grays (1943–45). He was also player-manager of the Kansas City Monarchs (1948–50). In addition, Bell competed in the Mexican and California winter leagues and in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.

Chicago and North Western Transportation Company (C&NW), former American railroad that was once one of the largest in the Midwest. The railroad was incorporated in 1859 as a successor to the foreclosed Columbus, Hocking Valley and Toledo Railway. Its first president was William Butler Ogden, the

Delta Air Lines, Inc.: …one day merge with Delta: Chicago and Southern Air Lines, Inc. (C&S), and Northeast Airlines, Inc. C&S was founded in 1933 as Pacific Seaboard Air Lines. In 1934 it secured a U.S. mail-carrying route from Chicago to New Orleans and was thus incorporated on Dec. 3, 1935, as Chicago and…

criminology: Action research: …successful example was Clifford Shaw’s Chicago Area Project, carried out during the 1920s and ’30s, which applied the ecological theories of University of Chicago sociologists Robert Park and Ernest Burgess in an attempt to motivate local residents to deal with the social problems of their neighbourhoods.

Akkadian language: …University of Chicago (or the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, as it is better known) reached 26 volumes (consisting of 21 numbered volumes, some of which were published in separate parts); the final volume was released in 2011, and the dictionary as a whole was made available online . The Chicago Assyrian…

Chicago Bears, American professional football team based in Chicago that plays in the National Football Conference (NFC) of the National Football League (NFL). The Bears are one of football’s most successful franchises, having won eight NFL championships and one Super Bowl. (Read Walter Camp’s 1903

Christology: Film: The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, for example, produced a series of documentary films that aimed to demonstrate that the natural world was created by an intelligent designer. Other companies, such as the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, produced feature films in which the conversion of the…

Chicago Blackhawks, American professional ice hockey team based in Chicago. The Blackhawks are part of the “Original Six,” the group of teams that made up the National Hockey League (NHL) from 1942 until the 1967 expansion. They have won six Stanley Cup titles. The team was established in 1926 by

blues: History and notable musicians: It was Chicago, however, that played the greatest role in the development of urban blues. In the 1920s and ’30s Memphis Minnie, Tampa Red, Big Bill Broonzy, and Sonny Boy Williamson were popular Chicago performers. After World War II they were supplanted by a new

Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), the first grain futures exchange in the United States, organized in Chicago in 1848. The Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) began as a voluntary association of prominent Chicago grain merchants. By 1858 access to the trading floor, known as the “pit,” was limited to

Chicago Bulls, American professional basketball team based in Chicago that plays in the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Bulls are probably most associated with former shooting guard Michael Jordan, who led the team to six NBA championships (1991–93, 1996–98) and is viewed by many

Arizona Cardinals, American professional gridiron football team based in Phoenix. The Cardinals are the oldest team in the National Football League (NFL), but they are also one of the least successful franchises in league history, having won just two NFL championships (1925 and 1947) since the

Andrew Greeley: In 2010 Chicago Catholics and the Struggles Within Their Church, a study that Greeley had nearly finished by late 2007, was posthumously completed and published by his colleagues at NORC.

Maria Tallchief: …as artistic director of the Chicago City Ballet. In 1996 she was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame, and that year she also received a Kennedy Center Honor. The autobiography Maria Tallchief: America’s Prima Ballerina (cowritten with Larry Kaplan) was published in 1997.

Chicago Cubs, American professional baseball team that plays its home games at Chicago’s Wrigley Field. Despite limited success, the Cubs have one of the most loyal fan bases and are among the most popular franchises in baseball. The Cubs play in the National League (NL) and have won three World

air law: Sovereignty: …principle is restated in the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944). Airspace is now generally accepted as an appurtenance of the subjacent territory and shares the latter’s legal status. Thus, under the Geneva Convention on the High Seas (1958) as well as under international customary law, the freedom of…

Chicago critics, group of pluralist, essentially formalist American literary critics—including Richard McKeon, Elder Olson, Ronald Salmon Crane, Bernard Weinberg, and Norman Maclean—who exerted a significant influence on the development of American criticism during the second half of the 20th

Chicago Cubs, American professional baseball team that plays its home games at Chicago’s Wrigley Field. Despite limited success, the Cubs have one of the most loyal fan bases and are among the most popular franchises in baseball. The Cubs play in the National League (NL) and have won three World

Chicago: Cultural institutions: …(1897) building, since 1991 the Chicago Cultural Center; graced with marble and mosaic interiors and a large Tiffany stained glass dome, it provides a variety of spaces for performances and temporary art exhibits. The Cultural Center is on the edge of a burgeoning downtown theater district, with large venues for…

Chicago Defender, the most influential African American newspaper during the early and mid-20th century. The Defender, published in Chicago with a national editorial perspective, played a leading role in the widespread Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North. Founded in

Chicago Daily News, evening daily newspaper published in Chicago between 1876 and 1978. In its heyday, it was famed for the excellence of its international coverage, which was widely syndicated throughout the United States. It was generally regarded as one of the great American dailies of its time.

Lewis Allen: In 1949 Allen helmed Chicago Deadline, a drama featuring Alan Ladd as an investigative reporter delving into the life and death of a prostitute. The two men reteamed for Appointment with Danger (1951), a film noir in which Ladd played a postal inspector who calls on a nun (Phyllis…

Chicago Defender, the most influential African American newspaper during the early and mid-20th century. The Defender, published in Chicago with a national editorial perspective, played a leading role in the widespread Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North. Founded in

Samuel Insull: …by Insull’s firm, now the Commonwealth Edison Company. Use of central power stations brought extension of his electrical power system to most of Illinois and parts of neighbouring states by 1917. His systems grew rapidly during the 1920s, not only because of central stations but also as a result of…

anarchism: Anarchism in the Americas: Four members of the “Chicago Eight” were hanged on November 11, 1887; one committed suicide in his cell; and three others were given long prison sentences. Excoriating the trial as unjust, Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the three surviving Haymarket prisoners in 1893. May Day—international workers’ day—was directly…

fireboat: …high-speed, shallow-draft fireboat introduced in Chicago in 1961 is propelled and steered by underwater hydraulic jets.

Major League Soccer: …follows:

Great Chicago Fire, conflagration that began on October 8, 1871, and burned until early October 10, devastating an expansive swath of the city of Chicago. Chicago’s growth in the mid-19th century was unprecedented. The population reached nearly 30,000 in 1850 and was triple that a decade later.

Chicago Heights, city, Cook county, northeastern Illinois, U.S. It is a suburb of Chicago, about 30 miles (50 km) south of downtown. The city’s name derives from its proximity to Chicago and its elevation, which averages 95 feet (29 metres) above the surrounding area. The site was the intersection

David E. Kelley: …he created the medical show Chicago Hope. Juggling the scripts for Chicago Hope and Picket Fences became a difficult task, however, and at the end of the 1994–95 season Kelley stepped down as executive producer for both shows.

Cabrini-Green: In 2000 the Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) began demolishing Cabrini-Green buildings as part of an ambitious and controversial plan to transform all of the city’s public housing projects; the last of the buildings was torn down in 2011.

Roger Brown: A Chicago Imagist: In the late 1960s critics began to group together a generation of artists who had studied at SAIC, though for the most part their styles were fairly divergent. Thus, Brown became associated not only with the so-called Hairy Who (consisting of Jim Nutt,…

softball: …indoor baseball, first played in Chicago in 1887. It became known in the United States by various names, such as kitten ball, mush ball, diamond ball, indoor–outdoor, and playground ball. There were wide variances in playing rules, size and type of playing equipment, and dimensions of the playing field.

University of Chicago Laboratory Schools: …the Laboratory School with the Chicago Institute, a private progressive normal school that had been founded by Francis W. Parker. As part of the university’s new School of Education, secondary schools were established in 1902 and under Dewey’s leadership were merged in 1903 into a set of laboratory schools. The…

Franz Alexander: …in 1932 to establish the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis, which he directed until 1956. Under his leadership, the institute attracted many analysts and students who conducted extensive research on emotional disturbance and psychosomatic disease, identifying various disorders with particular unconscious conflicts. This work is represented in his book Psychosomatic Medicine:…

Associated Press: The Chicago Inter Ocean, a newspaper that did not have AP membership, had brought an antimonopoly suit, and the AP moved to New York, where association laws permitted the group to continue its strict control of membership, including blackballing of applicants for membership by existing members.…

Myra Bradwell: …career by founding the weekly Chicago Legal News, of which she was both editorial and business manager. It soon became the most important legal publication in the western United States. In 1869 she helped organize Chicago’s first women’s suffrage convention, and she and her husband were active in the founding…

Chicago literary renaissance, the flourishing of literary activity in Chicago during the period from approximately 1912 to 1925. The leading writers of this renaissance—Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Edgar Lee Masters, and Carl Sandburg—realistically depicted the contemporary urban

Chicago Marathon, annual 26.2-mile (42.2-km) footrace through Chicago that is held each October. Along with the Berlin, Boston, London, New York City, and Tokyo marathons, the Chicago Marathon is one of the world’s six major marathons. The first Chicago Marathon—which was originally known as the

Tea Party movement: Origins of the Tea Party: …from the floor of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Santelli heatedly stated that the bailout would “subsidize the losers’ mortgages” and proposed a Chicago Tea Party to protest government intervention in the housing market. The five-minute clip became an Internet sensation, and the “Tea Party” rallying cry struck a chord with…

Chicago: City layout: …the metropolitan area, popularly called Chicagoland, to stretch from Kenosha, Wisconsin, around the south end of the lake through northwestern Indiana to the Michigan state line. Early suburban development gave the appearance of a wagon wheel. On the outer rim is a broad arc of older industrial cities—Waukegan, Elgin, St.…

Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO), American symphony orchestra based in Chicago, Ill., renowned for its distinctive tone and its recordings under such conductors as Fritz Reiner and Sir Georg Solti. It was founded by Theodore Thomas in 1891 as the Chicago Orchestra and operated as the Theodore

Chicago Cubs, American professional baseball team that plays its home games at Chicago’s Wrigley Field. Despite limited success, the Cubs have one of the most loyal fan bases and are among the most popular franchises in baseball. The Cubs play in the National League (NL) and have won three World

Mariska Hargitay: …Benson in various episodes of Chicago P.D., Law & Order, and Law & Order: Organized Crime. From 2004 to 2011 Hargitay was nominated each year for an Emmy Award for best lead actress, winning the award in 2006.

Washington Wizards, American professional basketball team based in Washington, D.C. The Wizards (then known as the Washington Bullets) made four trips to the National Basketball Association (NBA) finals in the 1970s and won an NBA championship in the 1977–78 season. Founded in 1961 as the Chicago

Chicago: City layout: …park administrations to create the Chicago Park District, which operates more than 600 parks covering some 8,000 acres (3,200 hectares). Beyond the city, county forest preserve districts and the federal government have set aside thousands of acres of natural woodlands and have re-created prairies.

nuclear reactor: The first atomic piles: His reactor, later called Chicago Pile No. 1 (CP-1), was made of pure graphite in which uranium metal slugs were loaded toward the centre with uranium oxide lumps around the edges. This device had no cooling system, as it was expected to be operated for purely experimental purposes at…

Chicago Race Riot of 1919, the most severe of approximately 25 race riots throughout the U.S. in the “Red Summer” (meaning “bloody”) following World War I; a manifestation of racial frictions intensified by large-scale African American migration to the North, industrial labor competition,

Chicago River, navigable stream that originally flowed into Lake Michigan after being formed by the north and south branches about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of the lake, in Chicago, northeastern Illinois, U.S. The Chicago River system flows 156 miles (251 km) from Park City (north) to Lockport (south);

Mike Ditka: …joined the ownership of the Chicago Rush, a member of the Arena Football League. He also worked frequently as an commentator on NFL telecasts and as a spokesperson for a vast number of products. Ditka: An Autobiography, cowritten by Don Pierson, appeared in 1986. In 1988 Ditka was inducted into…

Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, U.S. waterway linking the south branch of the Chicago River with the Des Plaines River at Lockport, Illinois. It has a length of 30 miles (48 km), a minimum width of 160 feet (50 metres), a minimum depth of 9 feet (2.7 metres), and 2 locks. The chief purpose of the

Joachim Wach: …the founder of the so-called Chicago School, from which emerged such influential scholars as Mircea Eliade.

Chicago School, group of architects and engineers who, in the late 19th century, developed the skyscraper. They included Daniel Burnham, William Le Baron Jenney, John Root, and the firm of Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan. Among the buildings representative of the school in Chicago are the Montauk

Chicago critics, group of pluralist, essentially formalist American literary critics—including Richard McKeon, Elder Olson, Ronald Salmon Crane, Bernard Weinberg, and Norman Maclean—who exerted a significant influence on the development of American criticism during the second half of the 20th

political science: Developments in the United States: …what became known as the Chicago school developed in the mid-1920s and thereafter. The leading figure in this movement was Charles E. Merriam, whose New Aspects of Politics (1925) argued for a reconstruction of method in political analysis, urged the greater use of statistics in the aid of empirical observation…

Antoni Zygmund: …Science for creating the so-called Chicago School of Analysis, which focused on Fourier analysis and its applications to partial differential equations. He wrote Trigonometric Series (1935 and later editions), Analytic Functions (1938, with Stanislaw Saks), and Measure and Integral (1977, with R.L. Wheeden). Zygmund held membership in the national academies…

Chicago critics, group of pluralist, essentially formalist American literary critics—including Richard McKeon, Elder Olson, Ronald Salmon Crane, Bernard Weinberg, and Norman Maclean—who exerted a significant influence on the development of American criticism during the second half of the 20th