Bedford, borough (town), seat (1771) of Bedford county, southern Pennsylvania, U.S., on the Pennsylvania Turnpike and the Raystown Branch Juniata River, in the Allegheny Mountains, 38 miles (61 km) south of Altoona. A settlement made on the site about 1750 by John Wray (or Ray), a Scottish trader,

Bedford, city, Bedford unitary authority, historic county of Bedfordshire, England, in the fertile valley of the River Ouse. A Roman fording station and a Saxon town (cemetery of Kempston), it was recaptured by the Anglo-Saxon sovereign Edward the Elder (ruled 899–924) from the Danes in 914. The

Bedford, county, southern Pennsylvania, U.S., bordered to the south by Maryland and to the east by Town Hill and Rays Hill. It is a mountainous region lying mostly in the Appalachian Ridge and Valley physiographic province. Other topographic features include Wills, Evitts, Tussey, Polish, and

Fens, natural region of about 15,500 square miles (40,100 square km) of reclaimed marshland in eastern England, extending north to south between Lincoln and Cambridge. Across its surface the Rivers Witham, Welland, Nen, and Ouse flow into the North Sea indentation between Lincolnshire and Norfolk

Norman Shaw: …by Shaw in 1876 at Bedford Park (now on the western side of London) was the first of its kind and was influential on the development of suburban planning.

John Russell, 4th duke of Bedford: …was the leader of the “Bedford Whigs,” a major parliamentary force in the third quarter of the 18th century in England.

Francis Russell, 2nd earl of Bedford was a Protestant supporter of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Only son of the 1st earl, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Lord Russell in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the Protestant reformers, whose opinions he shared, and was imprisoned during the

Francis Russell, 4th earl of Bedford was the 4th earl of Bedford, the only son of William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, who became earl of Bedford by the death of his cousin Edward, the 3rd earl, in May 1627. When the quarrel broke out between Charles I and Parliament in 1628, Bedford supported the

Francis Russell, 5th duke of Bedford was the 5th duke of Bedford, the eldest son of Francis Russell, marquess of Tavistock, the eldest son of the 4th duke; he succeeded his grandfather as duke of Bedford in 1771. Regarding Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined the Whigs in the House

cryonics: …to be cryonically preserved was James Bedford. On January 12, 1967, Bedford died from liver cancer that had metastasized to his lungs. Bedford died before all the arrangements for his cryonic preservation could be completed. As a result, his body was injected with cryoprotective agents without first draining his blood,…

Jasper Tudor, duke of Bedford was the leader of the Lancastrians in Wales, uncle and guardian of Henry, earl of Richmond, afterward Henry VII of England. The second son of Owen Tudor, founder of the family’s fortunes, he was knighted in 1449 and created earl of Pembroke about 1452. Between 1456 and

John Plantagenet, duke of Bedford was a general and statesman who commanded England’s army during a critical period in the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) with France. Despite his military and administrative talent, England’s position in France had irreversibly deteriorated by the time he died. The

John Robert Russell, 13th duke of Bedford was the elder son of the 12th duke (Hastings William Sackville Russell), succeeding to the title in 1953. Faced with paying heavy death duties on his father’s estate, including Woburn Abbey, the 13th duke developed to the full the commercial possibilities

John Russell, 1st earl of Bedford was the founder of the wealth and greatness of the house of Russell. He was a favourite of England’s Henry VIII and was created earl of Bedford during the reign of Edward VI. He was with Henry VIII at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520 and, returning to military

John Russell, 4th duke of Bedford was the leader of the “Bedford Whigs,” a major parliamentary force in the third quarter of the 18th century in England. Brother of the 3rd Duke (Wriothesley Russell), he joined the opposition to Sir Robert Walpole and in November 1744 became first lord of the

William Russell, 1st duke and 5th earl of Bedford was the eldest son of the 4th earl, who fought first on the side of Parliament and then on the side of Charles I during the English Civil War. In general, he played a minor part in politics. His son Lord William Russell (1639–83) was involved in the

William Russell, 1st duke and 5th earl of Bedford: His son Lord William Russell (1639–83) was involved in the opposition to Charles II, led by Lord Shaftesbury, and was executed for treason in 1683. It was partly because of his son’s fame as patriot-martyr that the 5th earl was granted a dukedom in 1694. He was…

Brooklyn: The contemporary city: Bedford-Stuyvesant, long the centre of Brooklyn’s Black community, has coped with poverty and urban blight but is undergoing a resurgence. Little Odessa in Brighton Beach is the locus for expatriates from Russia and other countries of the former Soviet bloc. Indeed, Brooklyn is home for…

Bedfordshire, geographic and historic county and former administrative county of the southeastern Midlands of England. The administrative county was abolished in 2009, and two of its three former districts—Mid Bedfordshire and South Bedfordshire—were reconstituted as the new unitary authority of

Kiran Bedi is an Indian social activist who was the first woman to join the Indian Police Service (IPS) and who was instrumental in introducing prison reform in India. Bedi was the second of four daughters. Her education included an undergraduate degree in English (1968), a master’s degree in

Côte d’Ivoire: Houphouët-Boigny’s rule: …president of the National Assembly, Henri Konan Bédié, who was, like his predecessor, a member of the Baule ethnic group and the PDCI.

Côte d’Ivoire: Houphouët-Boigny’s rule: …president of the National Assembly, Henri Konan Bédié, who was, like his predecessor, a member of the Baule ethnic group and the PDCI.

Joseph Bédier was a scholar whose work on the Tristan and Isolde and the Roland epics made invaluable contributions to the study of medieval French literature. He was appointed to the Collège de France in 1903. His reputation as a writer was established with the publication of Le Roman de Tristan

Joseph Bédier was a scholar whose work on the Tristan and Isolde and the Roland epics made invaluable contributions to the study of medieval French literature. He was appointed to the Collège de France in 1903. His reputation as a writer was established with the publication of Le Roman de Tristan

South Asian arts: Persian: …the Indian style, however, was ʿAbdul Qādir Bēdil, born in 1644 in Patna, of Uzbek descent. He came early under the influence of the Ṣūfīs, refused to be attached to any court, and travelled widely throughout India during his long life. Bēdil’s 16 books of poetry contain nearly 147,000 verses…

South Asian arts: Persian: …the Indian style, however, was ʿAbdul Qādir Bēdil, born in 1644 in Patna, of Uzbek descent. He came early under the influence of the Ṣūfīs, refused to be attached to any court, and travelled widely throughout India during his long life. Bēdil’s 16 books of poetry contain nearly 147,000 verses…

Judaism: Pilgrim Festivals: …any trace of leaven (bediqat ḥametz). The following morning the remaining particles of leaven are destroyed by fire (biʿur ḥametz). From then until after Pesaḥ, no leaven is consumed. Many Jews sell their more valuable leaven products to non-Jews before Passover (mekhirat ḥametz), repurchasing the foodstuffs immediately after the…

Robert Stevenson: Films for Disney: Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971) was also quite popular, with Angela Lansbury as a witch who tries to help the Allied cause during World War II. Herbie Rides Again (1974) was one of sequels inspired by The Love Bug, and The Island at the Top of…

Bedlam, the first asylum for the mentally ill in England. It is currently located in Beckenham, Kent. The word bedlam came to be used generically for all psychiatric hospitals and sometimes is used colloquially for an uproar. In 1247 the asylum was founded at Bishopsgate, just outside the London

Bedlington, town, unitary authority and historic county of Northumberland, England. It is adjacent to the North Sea port of Blyth. The town’s population grew rapidly with the expansion of coal mining north of the River Blyth in the 19th century. Ironworks flourished until the 1860s. Mining declined

Bedlington terrier, breed of dog developed in the 1800s in Northumberland, England, and named for Bedlingtonshire, a mining district in the area. The breed, which established itself locally as a fighting dog and a courageous hunter of badgers and other vermin, was later popular as a pet. Lamblike

Bedlington, town, unitary authority and historic county of Northumberland, England. It is adjacent to the North Sea port of Blyth. The town’s population grew rapidly with the expansion of coal mining north of the River Blyth in the 19th century. Ironworks flourished until the 1860s. Mining declined

Liberty Island, island, off the southern tip of Manhattan Island, New York, New York, U.S., in Upper New York Bay. It has an area of about 12 acres (5 hectares) and is the site of French sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi’s “Liberty Enlightening the World” (the Statue of Liberty). The island and

Alonso de la Cueva, marqués de Bedmar was a Spanish diplomat who was allegedly responsible for the “conspiracy of Venice” in 1618. Nominated by Philip III of Spain as ambassador to the Venetian Republic (1607), he was made marqués de Bedmar in 1614. He used his diplomatic privileges to promote the

Chuck Bednarik was an American professional gridiron football player who, as a linebacker and centre for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL) in the 1950s and early ’60s, was the last player in league history to regularly participate in every play of an NFL game. Bednarik

Chuck Bednarik was an American professional gridiron football player who, as a linebacker and centre for the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL) in the 1950s and early ’60s, was the last player in league history to regularly participate in every play of an NFL game. Bednarik

Nikolay Mikhaylovich Karamzin: Karamzin’s tale “Bednaya Liza” (1792; “Poor Liza”), about a village girl who commits suicide after a tragic love affair, soon became the most celebrated work of the Russian sentimental school.

malaria: Vaccines and other forms of prevention: …Southeast Asia is the insecticide-treated bed net, which has reduced mortality significantly in some areas. For example, in western Kenya the use of bed nets reduced mortality among children by 25 percent. Bed nets can be washed but must be re-treated with insecticide about every 6–12 months, depending on the…

J. Georg Bednorz is a German physicist who, along with Karl Alex Müller (q.v.), was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery of superconductivity in certain substances at temperatures higher than had previously been thought attainable. Bednorz graduated from the University

J. Georg Bednorz is a German physicist who, along with Karl Alex Müller (q.v.), was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery of superconductivity in certain substances at temperatures higher than had previously been thought attainable. Bednorz graduated from the University

Demyan Bedny was a Soviet poet known both for his verses glorifying the Revolution of 1917 and for his satirical fables. The natural son of a grand duke, Pridvorov began contributing to the socialist press before the Revolution, adopting the name Demyan Bedny (“Demyan the Poor”). In 1912 his

Fyodor Dostoyevsky: Early works of Fyodor Dostoyevsky: …first novella, Bednyye lyudi (1846; Poor Folk), than he was hailed as the great new talent of Russian literature by the most influential critic of his day, the “furious” Vissarion Belinsky.

Bedouin, Arabic-speaking nomadic peoples of the Middle Eastern deserts, especially of North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. Most Bedouins are animal herders who migrate into the desert during the rainy winter season and move back toward the cultivated land in

bedspread: …French word contrepoinct, meaning “stitched quilt,” was probably made of patched or applied pieces, quilted together. The quilts, or quilted bedspreads, in both appliqué and patchwork, that were made in the United States during the 18th and 19th centuries have come to be considered an important type of American folk…

Phetracha was the king of the Tai kingdom of Ayutthaya, or Siam (ruled 1688–1703), whose policies reduced European trade and influence in the country and helped preserve its independence. Phetracha was the foster brother of King Narai, whose patronage helped him rise to become head of the Elephant

Bedreddin was an Ottoman theologian, jurist, and mystic whose social doctrines of communal ownership of property led to a large-scale popular uprising. A convert to Ṣūfism (Islāmic mysticism), in 1383 Bedreddin undertook the pilgrimage to Mecca, and, upon his return to Cairo, he was appointed tutor

bedrock, a deposit of solid rock that is typically buried beneath soil and other broken or unconsolidated material (regolith). Bedrock is made up of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it often serves as the parent material (the source of rock and mineral fragments) for regolith and

Chlamydia, a genus of bacterial parasites that cause several different diseases in humans. The genus is composed of three species: C. psittaci, which causes psittacosis; Chlamydia trachomatis, various strains of which cause chlamydia, trachoma, lymphogranuloma venereum, and conjunctivitis; and C.

bedsore, an ulceration of skin and underlying tissue caused by pressure that limits the blood supply to the affected area. As the name indicates, bedsores are a particular affliction for persons who have been bedridden for a long time. The interference with normal blood flow is caused by the

bedspread, top cover of a bed, put on for tidiness or display rather than warmth. Use of a bedspread is an extremely ancient custom, referred to in the earliest written sources, for example, the Bible: “I have decked my bed with coverings of tapestry” (Proverbs 7:16). The first bedcovers were

bedstraw, (genus Galium), plant genus of about 400 species of low-growing annual or perennial herbs in the madder family (Rubiaceae). They can be found in damp woods and swamps and along stream banks and shores throughout the world. Bedstraw plants are characterized by finely toothed, often

Ronald Reagan: Governorship of California of Ronald Reagan: …the public, Reagan was making Bedtime for Bonzo, a 1951 movie in which Reagan starred with a chimpanzee. But Reagan turned this apparent liability into an asset by portraying himself as an ordinary citizen who was fed up with a state government that had become inefficient and unaccountable. The public…

Alexander Hall: The Columbia years: Bedtime Story (1941) was not as well received as Here Comes Mr. Jordan, but it was still a satisfying farce, starring Fredric March and Young. They All Kissed the Bride (1942), however, was more of a struggle, with Joan Crawford trying unsuccessfully to reposition herself…

Bedouin, Arabic-speaking nomadic peoples of the Middle Eastern deserts, especially of North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. Most Bedouins are animal herders who migrate into the desert during the rainy winter season and move back toward the cultivated land in

Sir Barton: Breeding and early years: With him was his trainer, H.G. Bedwell, a former cowboy who had a reputation for restoring broken-down horses to winning form. Ross paid $10,000 and went home with Sir Barton.

Sarah Silverman: Silverman’s other works included a musical adaptation of her memoir Bedwetter. She cowrote the book and lyrics for the production, which premiered Off-Broadway in 2022.

Bedworth, town, Nuneaton and Bedworth borough, administrative and historic county of Warwickshire, central England. It is situated just to the north of Coventry. Bedworth and neighbouring Nuneaton have merged. Coal mining, from two local pits, was important until it ceased at the end of the 20th

Będzin, city, Śląskie województwo (province), southern Poland, just northeast of Katowice, near the Czarna Przemsza River. Located on the trade route between Wrocław and Kraków, it is one of the oldest towns in the Upper Silesia coal-mining region; it developed as a centre of mining and heavy

Eustace Budgell: …founded his own weekly, the Bee (1733–35), which ran to 100 numbers, many filled with vainglorious self-justification. Disliked by many, Budgell was criticized by Alexander Pope in the Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot and in The Dunciad. His last years were spent in litigation concerning a will that he may have…

Patrice Tlhopane Motsepe: …to benefit from the country’s Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) laws, which required companies to have a minimum 26 percent black ownership before a mining license would be granted. In 1994 Motsepe founded a mine services company, Future Mining, and applied all of his life experience—knowledge of the mining trade and…

bee, (superfamily Apoidea), any of more than 20,000 species of insects in the suborder Apocrita (order Hymenoptera), including the familiar honeybee (Apis) and bumblebee (Bombus and Psithyrus) as well as thousands more wasplike and flylike bees. Adults range in size from about 2 mm to 4 cm (about

Monarda: The more sharply scented Oswego tea (M. didyma), shorter and with scarlet flowers, is native in eastern North America but is widely cultivated elsewhere.

kingbird: The eastern kingbird (T. tyrannus) ranges from the east coast of the United States to eastern Washington and Oregon in the United States and British Columbia and the Northwest Territories in Canada; it is dark slate gray above and white below, with a white tail tip.…

honeybee: Hives: …honey, plant nectar, and so-called bee bread, made from pollen, is stored in the cells. Honey, which the bees produce from the nectar of flowers, was virtually the only form of sugar readily available to humans until modern times. For this reason, honeybees have been domesticated by humans for centuries.…

angiosperm: Pollination: Flowers pollinated by bees commonly have a zygomorphic, or bilaterally symmetrical, corolla with a lower lip providing a landing platform for the bee. Nectar is commonly produced either at the base of the corolla tube or in extensions of the corolla base. The bees partially…

bee fly, any insect of the family Bombyliidae (order Diptera). Many resemble bees, and most have long proboscises (feeding organs) that are used to obtain nectar from flowers. Their metallic brown, black, or yellow colour is attributable to a covering of dense hair; in many species the body and

the Bee Gees, English-Australian pop-rock band that embodied the disco era of the late 1970s. In becoming one of the best-selling recording acts of all time, the Bee Gees (short for the Brothers Gibb) adapted to changing musical styles while maintaining the high harmonies, elaborate melodies, and

the Bee Gees: The documentary The Bee Gees: How Can You Mend a Broken Heart appeared in 2020.

lepidopteran: Importance: …mellonella) causes considerable damage in beehives.

hummingbird: The smallest species, the bee hummingbird (Mellisuga, sometimes Calypte, helenae) of Cuba and the Isle of Pines, measures slightly more than 5.5 cm, of which the bill and tail make up about half. Weighing about 2 g, this species is the smallest living bird and ranks with the pygmy…

assassin bug: Predatory behaviour: …commonly as bee assassins or bee killers, is among the largest genera in family Reduviidae. Species of Apiomerus frequent flowering plants, where they coat their legs with sticky plant resins and wait for their prey. The sticky resins allow the assassins to readily capture other insects, particularly bees. Plant resins…

beekeeping: Pests: The bee louse, Braula caeca, is a tiny, wingless member of the fly family that is occasionally found on bees. It feeds on nectar or honey from the mouthparts of its host. Its larvae burrow in the cappings of honey combs.

royal jelly, thick, white, nutritious substance fed to bee larvae. Secreted from glands in the heads of worker bees, it is fed to worker and drone larvae until the third day of life and to queen bee larvae throughout the larval period. Its components include water, proteins, carbohydrates, and

pyralid moth: Other interesting pyralids include the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), also known as bee-moth, or honeycomb moth. The larvae usually live in beehives and feed on wax and young bees and fill the tunnels of the hive with silken threads. The larvae are particularly destructive to old or unguarded colonies…

Kathy Bates: Films: …classic story Charlotte’s Web (2006), Bee Movie (2007), and The Golden Compass (2007).

Ophrys: …orchid (Ophrys insectifera) and the bee orchid (O. apifera) are common European species. Some species of Ophrys are known as spider orchids because their flower lips resemble the bodies of spiders.

beekeeping: Bee stings: The worker bee sting is barbed, and in the act of stinging it is torn from the bee. It has a venom-filled poison sac and muscles attached that continue to work the sting deeper into the flesh for several minutes and increase the…

animal behaviour: Instinctive learning: …female digger wasp called the bee wolf (Philanthus triangulum) who has finished excavating a tunnel in a sandy bank. She then digs a small outpocket where one of her young will develop, and she stocks this cell with worker honeybees (Apis mellifera), which she has paralyzed by stinging and which…

Frederick Bee was an American attorney, entrepreneur, and diplomat who was one of the principal advocates for the civil rights of Chinese immigrants in the United States in the 1870s and ’80s. Bee—whose father was an English immigrant, tailor, and Mason—spent his early life in New York state. In

Frederick Bee was an American attorney, entrepreneur, and diplomat who was one of the principal advocates for the civil rights of Chinese immigrants in the United States in the 1870s and ’80s. Bee—whose father was an English immigrant, tailor, and Mason—spent his early life in New York state. In

The Daily Show: …Carell, Lewis Black, Ronny Chieng, Samantha Bee, Hasan Minhaj, Dulcé Sloan, and John Oliver as well as Stephen Colbert, who hosted a Daily Show spinoff, The Colbert Report (2005–14), before becoming host of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert in 2015.

bee-eater, any of about 25 species of brightly coloured birds of the family Meropidea (order Coraciiformes). Found throughout tropical and subtropical Eurasia, Africa, and Australasia (one species, Merops apiaster, occasionally reaches the British Isles), bee-eaters range in length from 15 to 35 cm

kingbird: The eastern kingbird (T. tyrannus) ranges from the east coast of the United States to eastern Washington and Oregon in the United States and British Columbia and the Northwest Territories in Canada; it is dark slate gray above and white below, with a white tail tip.…

basketry: Sewed coiling: …the foundation or not (bee-skep variety) or goes through the centre of the corresponding stitch on the preceding coil (split stitch, or furcate). This sewed type of coiled ware has a very wide distribution: it is almost the exclusive form in many regions of North and West Africa; it…

William Beebe was an American biologist, explorer, and writer on natural history who combined careful biological research with a rare literary skill. He was the coinventor of the bathysphere. Beebe was curator of ornithology at the New York Zoological Gardens from 1899 and director of the

William Beebe was an American biologist, explorer, and writer on natural history who combined careful biological research with a rare literary skill. He was the coinventor of the bathysphere. Beebe was curator of ornithology at the New York Zoological Gardens from 1899 and director of the

beech, (genus Fagus), genus of about 10 species of deciduous ornamental and timber trees in the family Fagaceae native to temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The pale red-brown wood is durable underwater and is valued for indoor use, tool handles, and shipping containers.

Olive Ann Beech: …of the board (1950–82) of Beech Aircraft Corporation, a major manufacturer of business and military airplanes founded by her and her husband, Walter H. Beech. She was the first woman to lead a Fortune 500 company.

marten: The stone marten, or beech marten (M. foina), inhabits wooded country in Eurasia from Spain eastward to northern China. It has grayish brown fur with a divided white throat bib. It weighs 1–2.5 kg (about 2–5.5 pounds), is 42–48 cm (16.5–19 inches) long, and stands 12…

Fagales, beech order of dicotyledonous woody flowering plants, comprising nearly 1,900 species in 55 genera. Members of Fagales represent some of the most important temperate deciduous or evergreen trees of both hemispheres, including oaks, beeches, walnuts, hickories, and birches. Because of the

military aircraft: Civilian design improvements: …Travel Air “R” designed by J. Walter Beech. Powered by the Wright Cyclone, a 400-horsepower radial engine with a streamlined NACA cowling that contributed 40 miles (65 km) to its maximum speed of 235 miles (375 km) per hour, the “R” handily defeated the far more powerful Curtiss biplanes flown…

Olive Ann Beech was an American business executive who served first as secretary-treasurer (1932–50) and then as president (1950–68) and chairman of the board (1950–82) of Beech Aircraft Corporation, a major manufacturer of business and military airplanes founded by her and her husband, Walter H.

Sir Thomas Beecham, 2nd Baronet was a conductor and impresario who founded and led several major orchestras and used his personal fortune for the improvement of orchestral and operatic performances in England. Beecham was the grandson of the founder of the “Beecham’s pills” business, which provided

history of flight: General aviation: Cessna and Beechcraft still used radial-piston engines, but Piper relied on a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine that allowed engineers to design a more streamlined engine nacelle. This type of engine became the preferred style for modern light-plane designs.

history of flight: General aviation: …the seven to nine passenger Beechcraft Model 18, powered by two 450-horsepower engines that enabled a cruising speed of about 220 miles (350 km) per hour. Cessna and Beechcraft still used radial-piston engines, but Piper relied on a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine that allowed engineers to design a more streamlined…

Richard Ten Eyck: …team that designed the famous Beechcraft Model 35 Bonanza (first flown 1945); with its many variations, this airplane has one of the longest periods of continuous production in aviation history. Ten Eyck also designed the Vornado fan for the O.A. Sutton Corporation in Wichita (c. 1945–59), with later reincarnations by…

Catharine Beecher was an American educator and author who popularized and shaped a conservative ideological movement to both elevate and entrench women’s place in the domestic sphere of American culture. Beecher was the eldest daughter in one of the most remarkable families of the 19th century. She

Catharine Beecher was an American educator and author who popularized and shaped a conservative ideological movement to both elevate and entrench women’s place in the domestic sphere of American culture. Beecher was the eldest daughter in one of the most remarkable families of the 19th century. She

Harriet Beecher Stowe was an American writer and philanthropist, the author of the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which contributed so much to popular feeling against slavery that it is cited among the causes of the American Civil War. Harriet Beecher was a member of one of the 19th century’s most

Henry Knowles Beecher was an American anesthesiologist and researcher who was an outspoken advocate of ethical standards in human-subjects research and a pioneer in the study of pain, analgesia, and clinical trials that took into account the placebo effect. He also was influential in the growth of