Bradford: urban area (from 2011 built-up area), city, and metropolitan borough, metropolitan county of West Yorkshire, historic county of Yorkshire, northern England. It is located west of Leeds, in a side valley where a broad ford crosses a small tributary of the River Aire. Besides the…

Bradford, urban area (from 2011 built-up area), city, and metropolitan borough, metropolitan county of West Yorkshire, historic county of Yorkshire, northern England. It is located west of Leeds, in a side valley where a broad ford crosses a small tributary of the River Aire. Besides the historic

history of publishing: America: In that year appeared Andrew Bradford’s American Magazine, the first publication of its kind in the colonies. It was joined, a mere three days later, by Benjamin Franklin’s General Magazine. Both magazines appeared in Philadelphia; neither lasted very long, however—Bradford’s magazine survived only three months and Franklin’s six. Franklin…

Gamaliel Bradford was a biographer who cultivated “psychography,” a new type of biographical writing that sought to portray the inner life of the subject by a skillful selection of important and interesting traits. Lee the American (1912) was the first of a series of successful “psychographs,”

Roark Bradford was an American novelist and short-story writer whose works of fiction and folklore were based on his contacts with American blacks. Bradford had little formal education; instead, he found the substance for his career in the people around him. When he began work as a reporter in

Roark Bradford was an American novelist and short-story writer whose works of fiction and folklore were based on his contacts with American blacks. Bradford had little formal education; instead, he found the substance for his career in the people around him. When he began work as a reporter in

Robert Bradford was a Northern Irish Methodist clergyman and politician who served as a unionist member of the British Parliament for seven years (1974–81) until his assassination by militants of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). After attending Queen’s University, Belfast, Bradford was ordained a

Robert Bradford was a Northern Irish Methodist clergyman and politician who served as a unionist member of the British Parliament for seven years (1974–81) until his assassination by militants of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). After attending Queen’s University, Belfast, Bradford was ordained a

William Bradford was a U.S. marine painter whose pictures attracted much attention by reason of their novelty and color effects. He was a Quaker and a self-taught artist, painting the ships and the marine views he saw along the coasts of Massachusetts, Labrador, and Nova Scotia; he went on several

Fort Pillow Massacre: Initial attack: William Bradford—who would prove to be an inept leader—assumed control. Even the Union gunboat New Era, tasked with aiding the defense of the fort from the river, proved ineffectual against the combined challenges presented by the topography and Forrest’s artillerymen. At 3:30 pm, after hours…

William Bradford was a printer who issued one of the first American almanacs, Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America’s Messenger (1685), the first American Book of Common Prayer (1710), and many political writings and pamphlets. Bradford learned the printer’s trade in London and then immigrated to

William Bradford was the governor of the Plymouth colony for 30 years, who helped shape and stabilize the political institutions of the first permanent colony in New England. Bradford also left an invaluable journal chronicling the Pilgrim venture, of which he was a part. As a boy in England, he

Bradford-on-Avon, town (parish), administrative and historic county of Wiltshire, southwestern England. It is situated on the River Avon (Lower, or Bristol, Avon), just northwest of Trowbridge. Its limestone houses rise up the steep side of a valley, and the river is spanned by a medieval bridge

New Bern: …invented by New Bern pharmacist Caleb Bradham in 1898. The city’s diversified manufactures today include chemicals, boats, wood products, and plumbing fixtures.

Charles Bradlaugh was a British radical and atheist, a freethinker in the tradition of Voltaire and Thomas Paine, prominent throughout most of the second half of the 19th century for his championship of individual liberties. Son of a poor legal clerk, Bradlaugh served in the British army (1850–53),

Ben Bradlee was an American journalist and newspaper editor who set exacting standards and promoted an aggressive newsroom style as the executive editor (1968–91) of The Washington Post. Bradlee began reporting for a local paper at age 15. In 1942 he graduated from Harvard University with a

Ben Bradlee was an American journalist and newspaper editor who set exacting standards and promoted an aggressive newsroom style as the executive editor (1968–91) of The Washington Post. Bradlee began reporting for a local paper at age 15. In 1942 he graduated from Harvard University with a

natural childbirth: Elisabeth Bing, Robert Bradley, and Charles Leboyer. Although there are differences among their methods, all share the basic belief that if the prospective mother learns and practices techniques of physical and psychological conditioning, her discomfort during delivery will be lessened. Preparation also includes full instruction and coaching on…

Lydia Moss Bradley: …philanthropist who founded and endowed Bradley University in Peoria. Early in life she demonstrated qualities of determination and ability. In May 1837 she married Tobias S. Bradley and moved with him to Peoria, where over the next three decades he prospered in land and banking. His death in 1867 left…

A.C. Bradley was a literary critic and preeminent Shakespearean scholar of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Bradley attended Oxford and held professorships of modern literature at the University of Liverpool (1882–90), of English language and literature at the University of Glasgow

James Tiptree, Jr. was an American science fiction author known for her disturbing short stories about love, death, gender, and human and alien nature. When Alice Bradley was six years old, she and her parents traveled to the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) on an expedition

A.C. Bradley was a literary critic and preeminent Shakespearean scholar of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Bradley attended Oxford and held professorships of modern literature at the University of Liverpool (1882–90), of English language and literature at the University of Glasgow

Bill Bradley is a collegiate and professional basketball player who later served as a U.S. senator. Bradley began to play basketball at age nine and became one of the best players in Missouri high school basketball history. At Princeton University (N.J.), Bradley, a forward, was a playmaker and

Harvey J. Alter: …(2013; shared with American virologist Daniel W. Bradley). Alter was an elected member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (2002) and the National Academy of Medicine (2002).

The Atlantic: …1999 he sold it to David G. Bradley, owner of the National Journal Group. Bradley invested millions in The Atlantic Monthly and oversaw numerous changes. The number of issues dropped to 11 in 2001 and 10 in 2003. In 2004 the magazine’s masthead was changed to The Atlantic, which had…

Ed Bradley was an American broadcast journalist, known especially for his 25-year association with the televised newsmagazine 60 Minutes. As a student at Cheyney State College (now Cheyney University of Pennsylvania), Bradley worked his way into broadcasting by volunteering at Philadelphia radio

Edward Riley Bradley was a U.S. sportsman, gambler, philanthropist, owner and racer of Thoroughbreds, four of whom won the Kentucky Derby. As a boy, Bradley worked in steel mills, then went to the Southwest, where he became a cowboy and fought Indians and was briefly a miner before he turned to

F.H. Bradley was an influential English philosopher of the absolute Idealist school, which based its doctrines on the thought of G.W.F. Hegel and considered mind to be a more fundamental feature of the universe than matter. Elected to a fellowship at Merton College, Oxford, in 1870, Bradley soon

F.H. Bradley was an influential English philosopher of the absolute Idealist school, which based its doctrines on the thought of G.W.F. Hegel and considered mind to be a more fundamental feature of the universe than matter. Elected to a fellowship at Merton College, Oxford, in 1870, Bradley soon

James Bradley was an English astronomer who in 1728 announced his discovery of the aberration of starlight, an apparent slight change in the positions of stars caused by the yearly motion of the Earth. That finding provided the first direct evidence for the revolution of the Earth around the Sun.

Joseph P. Bradley was an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1870 until his death in 1892. His vote while he was a member of the Electoral Commission, which was created during the disputed election of 1876, elected Rutherford B. Hayes president of the United States. Bradley’s refusal

Lydia Moss Bradley was an American philanthropist who founded and endowed Bradley University in Peoria. Early in life she demonstrated qualities of determination and ability. In May 1837 she married Tobias S. Bradley and moved with him to Peoria, where over the next three decades he prospered in

Mamie Till-Mobley was an American educator and activist who helped galvanize the emerging civil rights movement after her son, Emmett Till, was murdered in 1955 for allegedly flirting with a white grocery store clerk in Mississippi. Mamie Carthan was born in rural Mississippi, the only child of

Marion Zimmer Bradley was an American writer, known especially for her Darkover series of science fiction novels and for her reimaginings of Classical myths and legends from women characters’ perspectives. Marion Zimmer studied at the New York State College for Teachers from 1946 to 1948 and, after

Omar Bradley was a U.S. Army officer who commanded the Twelfth Army Group, which helped ensure the Allied victory over Germany during World War II; later he served as the first chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (1949–53). Bradley graduated from the United States Military Academy at West

Tom Bradley was an American politician, the first African American mayor of a predominantly white city, who served an unprecedented five terms as mayor of Los Angeles (1973–93). The son of sharecroppers and the grandson of slaves, Bradley grew up in poverty. When he was seven years old, his parents

Manny Pacquiao: …his WBO welterweight title to Timothy Bradley in a controversial split decision. In December 2012 he lost a non-title bout to Juan Manuel Márquez—against whom Pacquiao had previously won two fights and drawn another—when he was knocked out in the sixth round. It was the first time Pacquiao had been…

Tom Bradley was an American politician, the first African American mayor of a predominantly white city, who served an unprecedented five terms as mayor of Los Angeles (1973–93). The son of sharecroppers and the grandson of slaves, Bradley grew up in poverty. When he was seven years old, his parents

typography: The private-press movement: … and magazine covers by artist Will Bradley in the United States; and in initials and decorations by Henry van de Velde in Belgium and Germany. Van de Velde, the leading spokesman for the movement as well as one of its most skilled practitioners, in his essay “Déblaiement d’art” (1892) advocated…

Bill Bradley is a collegiate and professional basketball player who later served as a U.S. senator. Bradley began to play basketball at age nine and became one of the best players in Missouri high school basketball history. At Princeton University (N.J.), Bradley, a forward, was a playmaker and

Don Bradman was an Australian cricketer, one of the greatest run scorers in the history of the game and often judged the greatest player of the 20th century. In Test (international) matches Bradman scored 6,996 runs for Australia and set a record with his average of 99.94 runs per contest. He

Don Bradman was an Australian cricketer, one of the greatest run scorers in the history of the game and often judged the greatest player of the 20th century. In Test (international) matches Bradman scored 6,996 runs for Australia and set a record with his average of 99.94 runs per contest. He

African literature: Portuguese: …one of the founders of O Brado Africano (“The African Roar”), a bilingual weekly in Portuguese and Ronga in which many of Mozambique’s writers had their work first published. Albasini’s collection of short stories O livro da dor (“The Book of Sorrow”) was published in 1925. Rui de Noronha composed…

crustacean: Annotated classification: †Order Bradoriida Cambrian to Ordovician. †Order Phosphatocopida Cambrian; remarkable fossils with up to 9 pairs of well-preserved appendages. †Order Leperditicopida Cambrian to Devonian. †Order Beyrichicopida

Oceanic art and architecture: Australia: …period is manifested by the Bradshaw style of small human figures, mostly in red, perhaps dating from before 3000 bc. The Bradshaw style is succeeded by the Wandjina style, which takes its name from the ancestor spirits depicted in the paintings. The large white spirit figures are outlined in black…

John Bradshaw was the president of the court that condemned King Charles I of England to death. Bradshaw, the son of a country gentleman, became a lawyer and in 1643 was appointed judge of the sheriff ’s court in London. During the early years of the English Civil Wars, he used his legal talents to

Terry Bradshaw is an American professional gridiron football quarterback who led the Pittsburgh Steelers to four Super Bowl championships (1975, 1976, 1979, and 1980). A highly prized collegiate football recruit coming out of high school, Bradshaw shunned traditional powerhouse Louisiana State

Terry Bradshaw is an American professional gridiron football quarterback who led the Pittsburgh Steelers to four Super Bowl championships (1975, 1976, 1979, and 1980). A highly prized collegiate football recruit coming out of high school, Bradshaw shunned traditional powerhouse Louisiana State

Christopher Isherwood was a British-American novelist and playwright best known for his novels about Berlin in the early 1930s. After working as a secretary and a private tutor, Isherwood gained a measure of coterie recognition with his first two novels, All the Conspirators (1928) and The Memorial

Anne Bradstreet was one of the first poets to write English verse in the American colonies. Long considered primarily of historical interest, she won critical acceptance in the 20th century as a writer of enduring verse, particularly for her sequence of religious poems, “Contemplations,” written

Thomas Bradwardine was the archbishop of Canterbury, theologian, and mathematician. Bradwardine studied at Merton College, Oxford, and became a proctor there. About 1335 he moved to London, and in 1337 he was made chancellor of St. Paul’s Cathedral. He became a royal chaplain and confessor to King

Bradwell v. State of Illinois, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on April 15, 1873, ruled (8–1) that the Illinois Supreme Court did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment when it denied a license to practice law to reform activist Myra Bradwell because she was a woman. The case of Bradwell

Myra Bradwell: …as a schoolteacher she married James B. Bradwell, a law student, in May 1852 and moved with him to Memphis, Tennessee, where they taught and then operated their own private school. In 1854 they returned to Illinois and settled in Chicago, where in 1855 James Bradwell was admitted to the…

Myra Bradwell was an American lawyer and editor who was involved in several landmark cases concerning the legal rights of women. Myra Colby grew up in Portage, New York, and from 1843 in Schaumburg township, near Elgin, Illinois. She was educated in schools in Kenosha, Wisconsin, and Elgin. After a

Brady Law, U.S. legislation, adopted in 1993, that imposed an interim five-day waiting period for the purchase of a handgun until 1998, when federally licensed dealers would be required to use a federal National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) to conduct background checks on

The Brady Bunch: …specials, two feature films (The Brady Bunch Movie [1995] and A Very Brady Sequel [1996]), a TV movie (The Brady Bunch in the White House [2002]), musical recordings, and a stage parody show (The Real Live Brady Bunch). The Brady Bunch became both the archetype and parody of the…

The Brady Bunch, American television situation comedy that aired for five seasons (1969–74) ABC and became an enduring pop culture phenomenon. Though the show was panned by critics and largely ignored by audiences during its network run, it became wildly popular in reruns, and its namesake family

Brady Law, U.S. legislation, adopted in 1993, that imposed an interim five-day waiting period for the purchase of a handgun until 1998, when federally licensed dealers would be required to use a federal National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) to conduct background checks on

Brady Law, U.S. legislation, adopted in 1993, that imposed an interim five-day waiting period for the purchase of a handgun until 1998, when federally licensed dealers would be required to use a federal National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) to conduct background checks on

plea bargaining: History of plea bargaining in the United States: …defendants who plead guilty (Brady v. United States) and that defendants may plead guilty without admitting culpability, meaning that they can plea bargain even when they feel they are factually innocent (Carolina v. Alford). In a fourth plea bargaining case, in 1971, the Supreme Court ruled that defendants are…

Alice Brady was an American actress whose talents on the stage aided her successful transition from silent movies to talking pictures. The daughter of theatrical manager William A. Brady, Alice was educated in a convent school in Madison, New Jersey, and at the New England Conservatory of Music.

James Buchanan Brady was an American financier and philanthropist, noted for his lavish lifestyle, fondness for ostentatious jewelry, and enormous appetite. Brady worked as a bellhop and in various jobs with the New York Central Railroad before taking a sales position with a railroad supply house.

James Buchanan Brady was an American financier and philanthropist, noted for his lavish lifestyle, fondness for ostentatious jewelry, and enormous appetite. Brady worked as a bellhop and in various jobs with the New York Central Railroad before taking a sales position with a railroad supply house.

Mathew Brady was a well-known 19th-century American photographer who was celebrated for his portraits of politicians and his photographs of the American Civil War. After training with the artist William Page and the artist and inventor Samuel F.B. Morse, Brady began to make daguerreotype cases and

Mathew Brady was a well-known 19th-century American photographer who was celebrated for his portraits of politicians and his photographs of the American Civil War. After training with the artist William Page and the artist and inventor Samuel F.B. Morse, Brady began to make daguerreotype cases and

Nicholas Brady was an Anglican clergyman and poet, author, with Nahum Tate, of a well-known metrical version of the Psalms. Brady graduated from Trinity College, Dublin, and became prebendary of Cork. In 1690, he was able to prevent the burning of the town of Bandon, after James II had given orders

Tom Brady is an American football quarterback who led his teams to a record seven Super Bowl victories (2002, 2004, 2005, 2015, 2017, 2019, and 2021) and was named the game’s Most Valuable Player (MVP) five times (2002, 2004, 2015, 2017, and 2021). While growing up, Brady often attended San

Tom Brady is an American football quarterback who led his teams to a record seven Super Bowl victories (2002, 2004, 2005, 2015, 2017, 2019, and 2021) and was named the game’s Most Valuable Player (MVP) five times (2002, 2004, 2015, 2017, and 2021). While growing up, Brady often attended San

William A. Brady was an American actor, manager, stage and motion-picture producer, and sports promoter. Brady made his acting debut in San Francisco in 1882 and began touring with his own company by 1888. He became a producer after successfully bringing the melodrama After Dark to the New York

William A. Brady was an American actor, manager, stage and motion-picture producer, and sports promoter. Brady made his acting debut in San Francisco in 1882 and began touring with his own company by 1888. He became a producer after successfully bringing the melodrama After Dark to the New York

gastropod: Classification: … and Camaenidae) or with (Bradybaenidae, Helminthoglyptidae, and Helicidae) accessory glands on the genitalia; dominant land snails in most regions, including the edible snails of Europe (Helicidae).

bradycardia, type of arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) characterized by slowing of the heart rate to 60 beats per minute or less. A slow heart rate in itself may have little medical significance; bradycardia is frequent among young adults, especially in highly trained athletes or during sleep.

mental disorder: Antipsychotic agents: …include tremor of the limbs, bradykinesia (slowness of movement with loss of facial expression, absence of arm-swinging during walking, and a general muscular rigidity), dystonia (sudden sustained contraction of muscle groups, causing abnormal postures), akathisia (a subjective feeling of restlessness leading to an inability to keep still), and tardive dyskinesia…

hormone: Endocrine-like glands and secretions: …the blood and perhaps elsewhere; bradykinin, for example, causes contraction of most smooth muscles and has a very potent action in dilating certain blood vessels. Its function, which is not yet established, may be to regulate the rate of blood flow or to participate in the inflammatory response of an…

sloth: Three-toed sloths: The three-toed sloth (family Bradypodidae) is also called the ai in Latin America because of the high-pitched cry it produces when agitated. All four species belong to the same genus, Bradypus, and the coloration of their short facial hair bestows them with a…

sloth: Three-toed sloths: …of southeastern Brazil; and the pygmy three-toed sloth (B. pygmaeus) inhabits the Isla Escudo de Veraguas, a small Caribbean island off the northwestern coast of Panama.

sloth: Three-toed sloths: …in northern South America; the maned sloth (B. torquatus) is restricted to the small Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil; and the pygmy three-toed sloth (B. pygmaeus) inhabits the Isla Escudo de Veraguas, a small Caribbean island off the northwestern coast of Panama.

sloth: Three-toed sloths: …Honduras to northern Argentina; the pale-throated three-toed sloth (B. tridactylus) is found in northern South America; the maned sloth (B. torquatus) is restricted to the small Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil; and the pygmy three-toed sloth (B. pygmaeus) inhabits the Isla Escudo de Veraguas, a small Caribbean island off the…

A Moving Habitat: …Central and South America (Bradypus variegatus) descends from the trees, where it lives among the branches. For this slow-moving mammal, the journey is a dangerous and laborious undertaking, but it is one of great importance to members of the community among and aboard the sloth. Once the sloth has…

Bradysaurus, (genus Bradysaurus), a group of extinct early reptiles found in South Africa as fossils in deposits from the Permian Period (299 million to 251 million years ago). Bradysaurus belonged to a larger group of reptiles called pareiasaurs, which were characterized by massive bodies, strong

Braemar, village, on the Clunie Water (stream) at its confluence with the River Dee, that is the centre of the picturesque mountainous region of Braemar in the council area and historic county of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The Jacobite Fifteen Rebellion of 1715 began in Braemar. The village is now a

melanoma: Causes and symptoms: …in a gene known as BRAF, which produces a protein called B-raf. B-raf is a kinase—a type of enzyme specializing in the transmission of intracellular signals from cell surface receptors to proteins that communicate with the cell nucleus. B-raf plays a central role in the carefully regulated transmission of cellular

Scrubs: ”) Dorian (played by Zach Braff), a young doctor struggling to move his medical career forward as he deals with the hospital’s eccentric staff, unpredictable patients, and absurd situations. The half-hour series was characterized by slapstick comedy, witty verbal exchanges, and surreal scenes (often attributed to the protagonist’s overactive…

poker: History of poker: …had produced the games of brag in England (one of four card games about which Edmond Hoyle wrote) and pochen (its name meaning “to bluff”) in Germany. From the latter the French developed a similar game called poque, first played in French America in 1803, when the Louisiana Purchase made…

Braga, city and concelha (municipality), northern Portugal. It lies at the head of the railway from Porto. Probably founded in 296 bce by Carthaginians, Braga was called Bracara Augusta by the Romans. It served as capital of the Callaici Bracarii, a Celtic tribe, and was a meeting place for five

Teófilo Braga was a poet, critic, and statesman who was the first to attempt a complete history of Portuguese literature. Braga’s family was Roman Catholic and monarchist by tradition, but he himself soon became noted for his intransigent republicanism and anticlericalism at Coimbra University,

Rubem Braga was a Brazilian journalist and author, best known for his numerous volumes of crônicas, short prose sketches integrating elements of essay and fiction. As a journalist, Braga worked on almost all the periodicals of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. He was a foreign correspondent in Italy

Teófilo Braga was a poet, critic, and statesman who was the first to attempt a complete history of Portuguese literature. Braga’s family was Roman Catholic and monarchist by tradition, but he himself soon became noted for his intransigent republicanism and anticlericalism at Coimbra University,

Western theatre: Italy: In 1921 Anton Giulio Bragaglia founded the Teatro Sperimentale degli Indipendenti, which borrowed from the Futurists but subordinated mechanics and technology to the play itself. He aimed to restore theatricality to the drama, using light, multidimensional space, masks, and costumes to Surrealistic effect. He also wished his…

Bragança, city and concelho (municipality), northeastern Portugal. It lies on a branch of the Sabor River in the Culebra Mountains, 105 miles (170 km) northeast of Porto on the border with Spain. Originally, Bragança was a Celtic city known as Brigantia; it later became the Juliobriga of the

Bragança, city, northeastern Pará estado (state), northern Brazil. Situated near the Atlantic coast and the border with Maranhão state, it is a regional commercial centre. Cotton, tobacco, cassava (manioc), corn (maize), rice, and sugarcane are the principal crops traded and processed in the city,

House of Bragança, ruling dynasty of Portugal from 1640 to 1910 and of the empire of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. The first duke of Bragança was Afonso (d. 1461), an illegitimate son of the Portuguese king John I. When Portugal gained its independence from Spain in 1640, João II, 8th duke of Bragança,

John IV was the king of Portugal from 1640 as a result of the national revolution, or restoration, which ended 60 years of Spanish rule. He founded the dynasty of Bragança (Braganza), beat off Spanish attacks, and established a system of alliances. John, duke of Bragança, the wealthiest nobleman in

Domenico Scarlatti: Early life and vocal works: Italy: …Don Antonio and to Princess Maria Bárbara de Bragança, who was to remain his patroness and for whom most of the harpsichord sonatas were later written. The production of serenades and church music continued, most of it adequate but hardly distinguished, if judged by surviving pieces. But a major change…

Bragança, city and concelho (municipality), northeastern Portugal. It lies on a branch of the Sabor River in the Culebra Mountains, 105 miles (170 km) northeast of Porto on the border with Spain. Originally, Bragança was a Celtic city known as Brigantia; it later became the Juliobriga of the

House of Bragança, ruling dynasty of Portugal from 1640 to 1910 and of the empire of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. The first duke of Bragança was Afonso (d. 1461), an illegitimate son of the Portuguese king John I. When Portugal gained its independence from Spain in 1640, João II, 8th duke of Bragança,

Drammen, city, southeastern Norway. Located at the junction of the Drams River with Drams Fjord, southwest of Oslo, the site was first settled in the 13th century as two separate communities, Bragernes and Strømsøy. Each was granted common town privileges in 1715. In 1811 they merged with Tangen to

Bragg law, in physics, the relation between the spacing of atomic planes in crystals and the angles of incidence at which these planes produce the most intense reflections of electromagnetic radiations, such as X-rays and gamma rays, and particle waves, such as those associated with electrons and

spectroscopy: X-ray optics: …the lattice spacings in analyzing crystals, the radiation can be “Bragg reflected” from the crystal: each crystal plane acts as a weakly reflecting surface, but if the angle of incidence θ and crystal spacing d satisfy the Bragg condition, 2d sin θ = nλ, where λ is the wavelength of…

radiation: Range: …given medium is called a Bragg curve. The Bragg curve includes straggling within a beam of particles; thus, it differs somewhat from the specific ionization curve for an individual particle in that it has a long tail of low ionization density beyond the mean range. The mean range of radium-C′…