abrasive, sharp, hard material used to wear away the surface of softer, less resistant materials. Included within the term are both natural and synthetic substances, ranging from the relatively soft particles used in household cleansers and jeweler’s polish to the hardest known material, the

abrasive: Grinding: Abrasive machining, the use of abrasives rather than high-speed steel or tungsten carbide cutting tools, makes use of the self-sharpening grinding wheel and eliminates tool sharpening costs. The ability to grind hardened materials without the previously necessary prehardening machining saves intermediate part-handling operations.

Benedict de Spinoza: The period of the Ethics of Benedict de Spinoza: …the Dialogues on Love by Leone Ebreo (also known as Judah Abravanel), written in the early 16th century. Spinoza had a copy in Spanish in his library. This text is the source of the key phrases that Spinoza uses at the end of Part V to describe the culmination of…

Werner Egk: His ballets, such as Abraxas (1948) and Casanova in London (1969), also attracted wide attention. Abraxas was banned, after five sold-out performances, on grounds of obscenity. Egk also wrote instrumental music.

Santana: Santana’s second album, Abraxas (1970), went to number one while spawning the hit singles “Black Magic Woman” and “Oye Como Va,” and Santana III (1971), featuring new guitarist Neal Schon, followed. With Caravanserai (1972) the group shifted toward jazz. Musicians began leaving the band—most notably Rolie and Schon,…

abraxas, sequence of Greek letters considered as a word and formerly inscribed on charms, amulets, and gems in the belief that it possessed magical qualities. In the 2nd century ad, some Gnostic and other dualistic sects, which viewed matter as evil and the spirit as good and held that salvation

Pedro Almodóvar: …and Los abrazos rotos (2009; Broken Embraces), a stylish exercise in film noir. The latter two films starred Cruz.

Mein Kampf: The first volume, entitled Die Abrechnung (“The Settlement [of Accounts],” or “Revenge”), was written in 1924 in the Bavarian fortress of Landsberg am Lech, where Hitler was imprisoned after the abortive Beer Hall Putsch of 1923. It treats the world of Hitler’s youth, the First World War, and the…

Abraha was an Ethiopian Christian viceroy of Yemen in southern Arabia during the 6th century AD. Abraha was viceroy of the principality of Sabaʾ in Yemen for the (Christian) emperors of Ethiopia. A zealous Christian himself, he is said to have built a great church at Sanaa and to have repaired the

António Egas Moniz was a Portuguese neurologist and statesman who was the founder of modern psychosurgery. With Walter Hess he was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the development of prefrontal leucotomy (lobotomy) as a radical therapy for certain psychoses, or mental

Capistrano de Abreu was a Brazilian historian best known for his large-scale interpretive work on Brazil’s colonial history. After serving at the National Library of Rio de Janeiro (1875–83), Abreu became professor of history at the Colégio Dom Pedro II in 1883. Influenced by the sociology of

Capistrano de Abreu was a Brazilian historian best known for his large-scale interpretive work on Brazil’s colonial history. After serving at the National Library of Rio de Janeiro (1875–83), Abreu became professor of history at the Colégio Dom Pedro II in 1883. Influenced by the sociology of

Alexey A. Abrikosov was a Russian physicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2003 for his pioneering contribution to the theory of superconductivity. He shared the award with Vitaly L. Ginzburg of Russia and Anthony J. Leggett of Great Britain. Abrikosov received doctorates in physics from

Alexey A. Abrikosov was a Russian physicist who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2003 for his pioneering contribution to the theory of superconductivity. He shared the award with Vitaly L. Ginzburg of Russia and Anthony J. Leggett of Great Britain. Abrikosov received doctorates in physics from

jequirity bean: The seeds contain the toxin abrin and are highly poisonous; the consumption of a single chewed seed can be fatal to an adult human.

Dolly: …Wilmut and colleagues of the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh, Scotland. The announcement in February 1997 of Dolly’s birth marked a milestone in science, dispelling decades of presumption that adult mammals could not be cloned and igniting a debate concerning the many possible uses and misuses of mammalian cloning technology.

chinchilla rat: Abrocoma species have small claws, but claws are large and curved in Cuscomys; the second digits of both genera are hollowed out underneath. Stiff hairs, possibly used as grooming combs, project over the middle three toes. Abrocoma species are medium-sized rodents weighing up to 350…

chinchilla rat: A. boliviensis inhabits rocky, shrubby areas at altitudes of about 2,500 metres in central Bolivia. The ashy chinchilla rat (A. cinerea) lives only in the Altiplano, between 3,700 and 5,000 metres, from southeastern Peru to northern Chile and Argentina. A. vaccarum is known from rocky…

chinchilla rat: The ashy chinchilla rat (A. cinerea) lives only in the Altiplano, between 3,700 and 5,000 metres, from southeastern Peru to northern Chile and Argentina. A. vaccarum is known from rocky cliff faces at 1,880 metres above sea level in west-central Argentina.

chinchilla rat: A. vaccarum is known from rocky cliff faces at 1,880 metres above sea level in west-central Argentina.

Italy: The participation of the citizen: …referenda or petitions designed to abrogate a law or an executive order; such a petition must be signed by 500,000 members of the electorate or sponsored by five regional councils. Abrogative referenda have been used extensively since the 1970s to make possible a wide range of institutional and civic reforms.…

Côte d’Ivoire: Precolonial kingdoms: …the states established was the Abron kingdom of Gyaman founded by Tan Daté. It was conquered by the Asante in the 1730s, and, despite numerous revolts, remained subject to it until 1875. In much the same circumstances the Anyi kingdoms of Indénié (Ndenye) and Sanwi were founded. Following the death…

Akan languages: are Asante (Ashanti), Fante (Fanti), Brong (Abron), and Akuapem. The Akan cluster is located primarily in southern Ghana, although many Brong speakers live in eastern Côte d’Ivoire. Altogether speakers of Akan dialects and languages number more than seven million. Written forms of Asante and Akuapem (both formerly considered to be…

climate change: Abrupt climate changes in Earth history: …important new area of research, abrupt climate change, has developed since the 1980s. This research has been inspired by the discovery, in the ice core records of Greenland and Antarctica, of evidence for abrupt shifts in regional and global climates of the past. These events, which have also been documented…

placentae abruptio, premature separation of the placenta from its normal implantation site in the uterus. The placenta is the temporary organ that develops during pregnancy to nourish the fetus and carry away its wastes. Placentae abruptio occurs in the latter half of pregnancy and may be partial

jequirity bean, (Abrus precatorius), plant of the pea family (Fabaceae), found in tropical regions. The plant is sometimes grown as an ornamental and is considered an invasive species in some areas outside its native range. Although highly poisonous, the hard red and black seeds are attractive and

Abruzzi, regione, central Italy, fronting the Adriatic Sea and comprising the provincie of L’Aquila, Chieti, Pescara, and Teramo. Most of the region is mountainous or hilly, except for such intermontane basins as those of L’Aquila, Sulmona, and Fucino. The Apennines, the dominant physical feature,

Europe: Elevations: …feet [2,912 metres]) in the Abruzzi Apennines, Bobotov Kuk (8,274 feet [2,522 metres]) in the Dinaric Alps, Mount Botev (7,795 feet [2,376 metres]) in the Balkan Mountains, Gerlachovský Peak (Gerlach; 8,711 feet [2,655 metres]) in the Western Carpathians, and Mount

Luigi Amedeo Giuseppe Maria Ferdinando Francesco, duke d’Abruzzi was a Spanish mountaineer and explorer whose ventures ranged from Africa to the Arctic. The son of King Amadeus of Spain (who was also the Duke d’Aosta in Italy), Abruzzi was the first to ascend Mount St. Elias in Alaska (1897). His

Abruzzi, regione, central Italy, fronting the Adriatic Sea and comprising the provincie of L’Aquila, Chieti, Pescara, and Teramo. Most of the region is mountainous or hilly, except for such intermontane basins as those of L’Aquila, Sulmona, and Fucino. The Apennines, the dominant physical feature,

Ben L. Abruzzo was an American balloonist who, with three crewmates, made the first transpacific balloon flight and the longest nonstop balloon flight, in the Double Eagle V. Abruzzo graduated from the University of Illinois (Champaign-Urbana) in 1952 and served two years in the U.S. Air Force at

Ben L. Abruzzo: Richard Abruzzo and ballooning partner Carol Rymer Davis, a prominent Denver radiologist, won the 2004 Gordon Bennett race, but both were killed in September 2010, during that year’s Bennett race, when their balloon crashed into the Adriatic Sea.

securitization: …generally referred to as an asset-backed security (ABS) or collateralized debt obligation (CDO). If the pool of debt instruments consists primarily of mortgages, the bond is referred to as a mortgage-backed security (MBS). The holders of such securities are entitled to the receipt of principal and interest payments on the…

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS), a hard, tough, heat-resistant engineering plastic that is widely used in appliance housings, luggage, pipe fittings, and automotive interior parts. Essentially a styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer modified by butadiene rubber, ABS combines the

computer science: Platform-based development: …requires real-time action is the antilock braking system (ABS) on an automobile; because it is critical that the ABS instantly reacts to brake-pedal pressure and begins a program of pumping the brakes, such an application is said to have a hard deadline. Other real-time systems are said to have soft…

American Bible Society (ABS), international agency under lay control, formed in New York in 1816 as a union of 28 local Bible societies “to encourage the wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures throughout the world, without note or comment, through translation, publication, distribution, and

Hermann J. Abs was a German banker and a leading figure in the West German “economic miracle” following World War II. Abs studied law for one year before joining a merchant bank in Cologne. After World War I, he obtained a series of posts, in Germany and abroad, learning the business of

Hermann J. Abs was a German banker and a leading figure in the West German “economic miracle” following World War II. Abs studied law for one year before joining a merchant bank in Cologne. After World War I, he obtained a series of posts, in Germany and abroad, learning the business of

Maria Ramos: …Transnet to become CEO of Absa, a subsidiary of Barclays and one of South Africa’s “big four” banks. During her first five years in the post, she drew criticism as Absa lost market share in retail banking, which had been its strongest segment. In 2017 she oversaw Absa’s separation from…

Absalom was the third and favourite son of David, king of Israel and Judah. The picture of Absalom that is presented in 2 Samuel 13–19 suggests that he was the Alcibiades of the Old Testament, alike in his personal attractiveness, his lawless insolence, and his tragic fate. He is first mentioned as

Absalom and Achitophel, verse satire by English poet John Dryden published in 1681. The poem, which is written in heroic couplets, is about the Exclusion crisis, a contemporary episode in which anti-Catholics, notably the earl of Shaftesbury, sought to bar James, duke of York, a Roman Catholic

Absalom, Absalom!, novel by American writer William Faulkner, published in 1936. The principal narrative, set in 19th-century Mississippi, involves Thomas Sutpen, a poor white man from the mountains of western Virginia who rebels against his family and his alcoholic father, suffers a life-changing

Absalon was an archbishop, statesman, and close adviser of the Danish kings Valdemar I and Canute VI. Scion of a powerful Zealand family, Absalon helped his childhood friend gain the Danish throne as Valdemar I (1156–57) and was named bishop of Roskilde in 1158. As the king’s closest adviser, he

Absaroka Range, mountain segment of the northern Rocky Mountains, in northwestern Wyoming and southern Montana, U.S. Extending in a northwest-southeast direction, the range is 170 miles (270 km) long and 50 miles wide. A large plateau, the result of volcanic action, was uplifted in the area, and

epeirogeny: …million years ago), and the Absaroka Sequence (Late Carboniferous to mid-Jurassic; about 320 to 176 million years ago).

Abscam, undercover criminal investigation (1978–80) by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), whose most prominent targets were U.S. elected officials. Although some saw the investigators’ methods as excessive—critics characterized them as entrapment—the convictions of one U.S. senator, six

abscess, a localized collection of pus in a cavity formed from tissues that have been broken down by infectious bacteria. An abscess is caused when such bacteria as staphylococci or streptococci gain access to solid tissue (e.g., by means of a small wound on the skin). The toxins released by these

air warfare: Air superiority: …diving maneuver called the split-S, half-roll, or Abschwung was frequently executed against bombers. Heavily armed fighters such as the British Hurricane or the German Fw-190, instead of approaching from the side or from below and to the rear, would attack head-on, firing until the last moment and then rolling just…

hormone: Growth inhibitors: The best characterized one is abscisic acid, which is chemically related to the cytokinins. It is probably universally distributed in higher plants and has a variety of actions; for example, it promotes abscission (leaf fall), the development of dormancy in buds, and the formation of potato tubers. The mode of…

hormone: Auxins: …and in leaf fall (abscission). In experimental conditions, auxins tend to inhibit the progress of plant aging, perhaps because of their stimulating effect upon protein synthesis.

temperate forest: Population and community development and structure: …layer of tissue called the abscission layer develops at the base of each leaf stalk, and at this point the stalk breaks and the leaf is shed. The massive leaf drop that ensues during autumn has earned the season its alternate designation, fall.

Dannie Abse was a Welsh poet, playwright, essayist, and novelist, known for his unique blend of Welsh and Jewish sensibilities. Abse was reared in Cardiff. He trained as a physician at King’s College, London, and qualified as a doctor at Westminster Hospital in 1950. From 1949 to 1954 he edited a

Sydney Pollack: Film directing: Absence of Malice (1981) was considerably more weighty, a well-plotted exploration of the boundaries of journalistic ethics, with Sally Field as an ambitious newspaper reporter duped into writing a story that implicates an innocent businessman (Paul Newman) in a murder. The measured pace of the…

David Hare: …about the legal profession; and The Absence of War (1993), about politicians. The Blue Room (1998) was an adaptation of Merry-Go-Round by the Austrian playwright Arthur Schnitzler. It follows the partnering of 10 pairs of lovers, each vignette featuring one character who appeared in the last.

epilepsy: Generalized-onset seizures: …to by the older term petit mal. Minor movements such as blinking may be associated with absence seizures. After the short interruption of consciousness, the individual is mentally clear and able to resume previous activity. Absence seizures occur mainly in children and do not appear initially after age 20; they…

Peter Handke: …feature films, including L’Absence (1992; The Absence), which he also wrote.

Robert Stevenson: Films for Disney: Next was The Absent-Minded Professor (1961), which was a huge success at the box office; it starred Fred MacMurray as the inventor of flying rubber, known as “flubber.” Stevenson also directed the sequel, Son of Flubber (1963). In Search of the Castaways, an adaptation of the Jules…

absentee ownership, originally, ownership of land by proprietors who did not reside on the land or cultivate it themselves but enjoyed income from it. The term absentee ownership has assumed a derogatory social connotation not inherent in its literal meaning, based on the assumption that absentee

Thorstein Veblen: Final years and assessment: His last book, Absentee Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times: The Case of America (1923), was an ill-written and repetitious examination of corporate finance, in which he stressed again the contradiction between the industrial arts and business enterprise.

absentee voting, electoral process that enables persons who cannot appear at their designated polling places to vote from another location. The usual method of absentee voting is by mail, although provision is sometimes made for voting at prescribed places in advance of the polling date. Absentee

Caspian Sea: Submarine features: The Abşeron Bank, a belt of shoals and islands rising from submerged elevations of older rocks, marks the transition to the southern Caspian, a depression covering about 57,570 square miles (149,106 square km). That depression is fringed by a shelf that is narrow to the west…

Abşeron Peninsula, peninsula in Azerbaijan that extends 37 miles (60 km) eastward into the Caspian Sea and reaches a maximum width of 19 miles (30 km). An eastern extension of the Caucasus Mountains, the Abşeron Peninsula consists of a gently undulating plain, in part dissected by ravines and

Abşeron Peninsula, peninsula in Azerbaijan that extends 37 miles (60 km) eastward into the Caspian Sea and reaches a maximum width of 19 miles (30 km). An eastern extension of the Caucasus Mountains, the Abşeron Peninsula consists of a gently undulating plain, in part dissected by ravines and

absinthe, flavoured distilled liquor, yellowish green in colour, turning to cloudy opalescent white when mixed with water. Highly aromatic, this liqueur is dry and somewhat bitter in taste. Absinthe is made from a spirit high in alcohol, such as brandy, and typically is marketed with alcoholic

Pablo Picasso: Collage: Absinthe Glass (1914; six versions), for example, is in part sculpture (cast bronze), in part collage (a real silver sugar strainer is welded onto the top), and in part painting (Neo-Impressionist brush strokes cover planes of white paint). But the work is neither sculpture nor…

Lhasa apso, breed of dog from Tibet, where it is called abso seng kye (“bark lion sentinel dog”) and is used as an indoor guard dog. The Lhasa apso is characteristically hardy, intelligent, and watchful. Longer than it is tall, it stands 10 to 11 inches (25 to 28 cm) and weighs 13 to 15 pounds (6

Western philosophy: The idealism of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel: …cosmic totality that is “the Absolute.” Just as the moral will is the chief characteristic of the self, so it is also the activating principle of the world. Thus Fichte provided a new definition of philosophizing that made it the most dignified of intellectual pursuits. The sole task of philosophy…

perfume: …concentrated flower oil called an absolute. In the extraction method called enfleurage, petals are placed between layers of purified animal fat, which become saturated with flower oil, and alcohol is then used to obtain the absolute. The expression method, used to recover citrus oils from fruit peels, ranges from a…

absolute advantage, economic concept that is used to refer to a party’s superior production capability. Specifically, it refers to the ability to produce a certain good or service at lower cost (i.e., more efficiently) than another party. (A “party” may be a company, a person, a country, or

Colin MacInnes: Absolute Beginners: Sometimes compared to J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951), Absolute Beginners (1959) follows a nameless teenaged photographer as he moves episodically from one London scene to another, indignant at the bloodless society of the “taxpayers.” Along the way he reflects on…

Gil Evans: …Bowie (for the 1986 movie Absolute Beginners), Robbie Robertson (for the 1986 Martin Scorsese movie The Color of Money), and Sting (in live and studio performances in 1987).

dating: Absolute dating: Although relative ages can generally be established on a local scale, the events recorded in rocks from different locations can be integrated into a picture of regional or global scale only if their sequence in time is firmly established. The time that has…

tensor analysis, branch of mathematics concerned with relations or laws that remain valid regardless of the system of coordinates used to specify the quantities. Such relations are called covariant. Tensors were invented as an extension of vectors to formalize the manipulation of geometric entities

empiricism: Degrees of empiricism: On this basis, absolute, substantive, and partial empiricisms can be distinguished.

José Sarria was a Latino American drag performer and political activist who was the first openly gay person to run for public office in the United States. (He ran unsuccessfully for a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors—the legislative body of the city and county—in 1961). Sarria was the

polycythemia: Types of polycythemia: …cause is known, is called erythrocytosis.

John le Carré: In Absolute Friends (2003) two Cold War-era intelligence agents reconnect in Europe after the September 11 attacks. A Most Wanted Man (2008; film 2014) follows the efforts of a terrorist—the son of a KGB colonel—to conceal himself in Hamburg. Our Kind of Traitor (2010; film 2016)…

absolute humidity, the vapour concentration or density in the air. If mv is the mass of vapour in a volume of air, then absolute humidity, or dv, is simply dv = mv/ V, in which V is the volume and dv is expressed in grams per cubic metre. This index indicates how much vapour a beam of radiation

Absolute Idealism: …coherent categories of science, the Absolute Idea, of which all other abstract ideas are merely a part, is approached. Hegel also held that this increasing clarity is evident in the fact that later philosophy presupposes and advances from earlier philosophy, ultimately approaching that to which all things are related and…

Absolute Idealism, philosophical theory chiefly associated with G.W.F. Hegel and Friedrich Schelling, both German idealist philosophers of the 19th century, Josiah Royce, an American philosopher, and others, but, in its essentials, the product of Hegel. Absolute Idealism can generally be

liability insurance: …of this last type, called absolute liability, vary from one legal jurisdiction to another but may include, for example, the ownership of dangerous wild animals.

magnetometer: Absolute magnetometers are calibrated with reference to their own known internal constants. Relative magnetometers must be calibrated by reference to a known, accurately measured magnetic field.

star: Measuring starlight intensity: The absolute magnitude of a star is defined as the magnitude it would have if it were viewed at a standard distance of 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years). Since the apparent visual magnitude of the Sun is −26.75, its absolute magnitude corresponds to a diminution in brightness…

absolutism, the political doctrine and practice of unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty, as vested especially in a monarch or dictator. The essence of an absolutist system is that the ruling power is not subject to regularized challenge or check by any other agency, be it

mathematics: Mathematical physics: …sense in a concept of absolute motion; all motion was relative. Poincaré thereupon gave an elegant mathematical formulation of Lorentz’s ideas, which fitted them into a theory in which the motion of the electron is governed by Maxwell’s equations. Poincaré, however, stopped short of denying the reality of the ether…

program music: It is contrasted with so-called absolute, or abstract, music, in which artistic interest is supposedly confined to abstract constructions in sound. It has been stated that the concept of program music does not represent a genre in itself but rather is present in varying degrees in different works of music.…

property: …in a thing was called dominium, or proprietas (ownership). The classical Roman jurists do not state that their system tends to ascribe proprietas to the current possessor of the thing but that it did so is clear enough. Once the Roman system had identified the proprietarius (the owner), it was…

pitch: Absolute, or perfect, pitch is the ability to identify by ear any note at some standard pitch or to sing a specified note, say G♯, at will. Fully developed absolute pitch is rare. It appears early in childhood and is apparently an acute form of memory of…

Clint Eastwood: Films of the 1990s of Clint Eastwood: In the thriller Absolute Power (1997) Eastwood played a thief who, in the midst of a robbery, witnesses the Secret Service murder a woman whom the president of the United States (Gene Hackman) has just attacked sexually. In True Crime (1999) Eastwood starred as a veteran reporter whose…

transition-state theory, treatment of chemical reactions and other processes that regards them as proceeding by a continuous change in the relative positions and potential energies of the constituent atoms and molecules. On the reaction path between the initial and final arrangements of atoms or

nervous system: Repolarization: This is called the absolute refractory period, and it is followed by a relative refractory period, during which another action potential can be generated, but only by a greater stimulus current than that originally needed. This period is followed by the return of the neuronal properties to the threshold…

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: At Heidelberg: …the eternal cyclical process whereby Absolute Spirit comes to knowledge of itself as spirit (1) through its own thinking, (2) through nature, and (3) through finite spirits and their self-expression in history and their self-discovery—in art, in religion, and in philosophy—as one with Absolute Spirit itself.

absolute temperature scale, any thermometric scale on which a reading of zero coincides with the theoretical absolute zero of temperature—i.e., the thermodynamic equilibrium state of minimum energy. The standard measure of temperature in the International System of Units is the Kelvin (K) scale,

absolute temperature scale, any thermometric scale on which a reading of zero coincides with the theoretical absolute zero of temperature—i.e., the thermodynamic equilibrium state of minimum energy. The standard measure of temperature in the International System of Units is the Kelvin (K) scale,

Alice Walker: Later work and controversies: …other volumes of poetry, including Absolute Trust in the Goodness of the Earth (2003), A Poem Traveled Down My Arm (2003), Hard Times Require Furious Dancing (2010), and Taking the Arrow Out of the Heart (2018). Her Blue Body Everything We Know: Earthling Poems (1991) collects poetry from 1965 to…

Ernst Troeltsch: Influence of his thought: …drastically rethink its attitude toward “absolutist” claims made for the truth of its doctrines. He was both fascinated and troubled by “historicism” (historical relativism): the view that whatever is valued, pursued, conceived, or achieved at any given time or place is relative to, and only understandable in the context of,…

absolute value, Measure of the magnitude of a real number, complex number, or vector. Geometrically, the absolute value represents (absolute) displacement from the origin (or zero) and is therefore always nonnegative. If a real number a is positive or zero, its absolute value is itself. The

viscosity: The dimensions of dynamic viscosity are force × time ÷ area. The unit of viscosity, accordingly, is newton-second per square metre, which is usually expressed as pascal-second in SI units.

water scarcity: Mechanisms: Physical, or absolute, water scarcity is the result of a region’s demand outpacing the limited water resources found there. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, around 1.2 billion people live in areas of physical scarcity; many of these people…

absolute zero, temperature at which a thermodynamic system has the lowest energy. It corresponds to −273.15 °C on the Celsius temperature scale and to −459.67 °F on the Fahrenheit temperature scale. The notion that there is an ultimately lowest temperature was suggested by the behaviour of gases at