Inapparent infections (those that do not cause specific signs and symptoms) often result after exposure to picornaviruses, influenza viruses, rhinoviruses, herpesviruses, and adenoviruses but less frequently to measles and chickenpox viruses. In cases of inapparent infection, long-lasting immunity develops, but only to the strain of virus that has the same antigenic composition as the original infecting virus.
Certain of these viruses persist in the tissues of the host after the initial infection despite the presence of circulating antibodies to it in the blood and tissues. Such viruses probably reside inside cells, where they are protected from antibodies that cannot penetrate the cell membrane. Among persistent viruses are adenoviruses, measles virus, and, in particular, many kinds of herpesviruses. The genetic information of herpesviruses and adenoviruses can be integrated into the genome of the host cell, but it is believed that these viruses frequently, and the measles virus invariably, reside in cells in the form of extrachromosomal genes (genes not integrated in chromosomes). These dormant viruses can be activated by many factors, such as trauma, another infection, emotional stress, menstruation, excessive exposure to sunlight, and various illnesses.
The phenomenon of latency and reactivation is particularly common among viruses of the family Herpesviridae, which cause chronic or recurrent diseases: (1) herpes simplex virus type 1, which causes recurrent cold sores, (2) herpes simplex virus type 2 in genital tissue, which causes repeated herpetic infections of the vagina or penis, (3) cytomegalovirus, which usually produces an inapparent infection activated by simultaneously occurring disease to cause severe liver, lung, or nervous-system disease, and (4) varicella virus, which is the causative agent of chickenpox but which can be activated decades later to produce herpes zoster (shingles). A rare, but invariably fatal, disease of the nervous system is subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE), which is a progressive degenerative condition caused by measles virus (a paramyxovirus) lying dormant in brain cells for many years and then reactivated, usually in adolescence. There is no simple explanation for why latent viruses, such as those in the family Herpesviridae, that are present in the tissues of most adult humans can be activated to cause disease in some people but not in others.
Chronic and slowly progressive diseases
Although some viruses multiply slowly, this is not always the explanation for the chronicity or the slow progression of the diseases caused by these viruses. Hepatitis, for example, is a subacute or chronic disease, with a long latent period, that is caused by at least five viruses with different properties. Hepatitis A is caused by a picornavirus usually transmitted by the fecal-oral route in a manner similar to that of poliovirus. Hepatitis B is caused by a small DNA virus that contains its own DNA polymerase and is transmitted by transfusion of blood and other blood products, by the sharing of nonsterile hypodermic needles among drug users, by sexual intercourse, or from mother to neonate. Hepatitis B virus is classified with similar viruses of birds in the family Hepadnaviridae. Most cases of hepatitis spread by the transfusion of blood or blood products or by needles shared by drug users are caused by a third, completely distinct virus—originally called non-A, non-B hepatitis but now known to be a member of the virus family Flaviviridae—designated hepatitis C virus. A fourth unique agent that causes hepatitis is designated hepatitis delta virus, which has not yet been classified taxonomically but is a small enveloped virus containing a circular RNA genome; hepatitis B virus serves as a helper for replication of hepatitis delta virus, the virions of which contain hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). The fifth causative agent of viral hepatitis, largely occurring in Asia and Africa, is a small RNA virus tentatively classified as a member of the family Caliciviridae and designated hepatitis E virus.
Many other agents that appear to cause chronic and slowly progressive diseases, particularly those affecting the nervous system, have been identified. A fatal neurological disorder of sheep, called scrapie, has an incubation period of years and may be caused by a heat-resistant protein called a prion, which is self-replicating. Similar, rather obscure agents have been identified for two uncommon fatal disorders of the nervous system called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and kuru.
The disease now known as AIDS was first recognized in homosexuals and hemophiliacs about 1981 and continues to be disseminated throughout the world to become one of the most devastating epidemics of all time. AIDS is caused by HIV, a member of a genetically more complex group of the family Retroviridae called lentiviruses. Closely related viruses of monkeys and cats cause similar diseases. HIV is transmitted by blood and other body fluids and infects primarily helper T lymphocytes and other cells with CD4 surface receptors (cell surface proteins that react with antigens), to which the virus binds. After the virus has been dormant for years, destruction of T lymphocytes results in drastic depression of the immune system. Death almost invariably results from “opportunistic” infections such as pneumonia—caused by ordinarily nonpathogenic organisms such as Pneumocystis carinii—or tuberculosis or by cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma and lymphomas.