human aging
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human aging, physiological changes that take place in the human body leading to senescence, the decline of biological functions and of the ability to adapt to metabolic stress. In humans the physiological developments are normally accompanied by psychological and behavioral changes, and other changes, involving social and economic factors, also occur.
Aging begins as soon as adulthood is reached and is as much a part of human life as are infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Gerontology (the study of aging) is concerned primarily with the changes that occur between the attainment of maturity and the death of the individual. The goal of research in gerontology is to identify the factors that influence these changes. Application of this knowledge can reduce the severity of some disabilities commonly associated with aging.
The biological-physiological aspects of aging include both the basic biological factors that underlie aging and the general health status. Since the probability of death increases rapidly with advancing age, it is clear that changes must occur in the individual which make him or her more and more vulnerable to disease. For example, a young adult may rapidly recover from pneumonia, whereas an elderly person may die.
Physiologists have found that the performance of many organs such as the heart, kidneys, brain, or lungs shows a gradual decline over the life span. Part of this decline is due to a loss of cells from these organs, with resultant reduction in the reserve capacities of the individual. Furthermore, the cells remaining in the elderly individual may not perform as well as those in the young. Certain cellular enzymes may be less active, and thus more time may be required to carry out chemical reactions. Ultimately the cell may die.
Effect of aging of the body systems
Cardiovascular system
Diseases of the heart are the single largest cause of death after age 65. Thus, with increasing age, the heart becomes more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease. Even in the absence of detectable disease, the heart undergoes deleterious changes with advancing age. Structural changes include a gradual loss of muscle fibres with an infiltration of adipose tissue (fat) and connective tissue. There is a gradual accumulation of insoluble granular material (lipofuscin, or “age pigment”) in cardiac muscle fibres. These granules, composed of proteins and lipids, make their first appearance by age 20 and increase gradually, so that by age 80 they may occupy as much as 5–10 percent of the volume of a muscle fibre.
The heart also shows a gradual reduction in performance with advancing age. The amount of blood pumped by the heart diminishes by about 50 percent between ages 20 and 90 years. There are marked individual differences in the effects of age. For example, some 80-year-old individuals may have cardiac function that is as good as that of the average 40-year-old individual.
Under resting conditions, the heart rate does not change significantly with age. During each beat, however, the muscle fibres of the heart do not contract as rapidly in the old as in the young. This reduction in power, or rate of work, is due to the age-associated reduction in the activities of certain cellular enzymes that produce the energy required for muscular contraction.
In spite of these changes, the heart, in the absence of disease, is able to meet the demands placed upon it. In response to physical exercise, it can increase its rate to double or triple the amount of blood pumped each minute, although the maximum possible output falls, and the reserve capacity of the heart diminishes with age.
Arteriosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries, increases markedly in incidence with age and is often regarded as part of aging. This is not necessarily true. Arteriosclerosis may appear even in adolescents. It is a progressive disorder and is present to some extent in practically all individuals by middle life. It is, therefore, impossible to make a clear distinction between the effects of aging and the effects of disease in blood vessels in humans. In some animal species—for example, the rat—that do not develop arteriosclerosis, age changes in the heart and blood vessels can be identified.
In general, blood vessels become less elastic with advancing age. There is a progressive thickening of the walls of larger blood vessels with an increase in connective tissue. The connective tissue itself becomes stiffer with increasing age. This occurs because of the formation of cross-links both within the molecules of collagen, a primary constituent of connective tissue, and between adjacent collagen fibres. These changes in blood vessels occur even in the absence of the deposits on the arterial wall characteristic of atherosclerosis, which interfere with blood flow through the arteries. The gradual loss of elasticity increases with resistance to the flow of blood so that blood pressure may increase. This in turn increases the work that the heart must do in order to maintain the flow of blood.
While both systolic and diastolic blood pressures (blood pressures at contraction and dilation of the heart, respectively) increase with age, the rate of systolic increase exceeds that of diastolic so that the pulse pressure widens. The increase in pressure stops in the eighth decade of life, and there may even be a slight decline in pressure in extreme old age.
On the average, obese people have higher blood pressures than those with normal body weights. Since the incidence of obesity increases with age at least up to age 55–60, this factor may contribute in part to the increase in blood pressure with age.