fat and oil processing
- Related Topics:
- fat
- food processing
fat and oil processing, method by which fatty animal and plant substances are prepared for eating by humans.
The oil and fat products used for edible purposes can be divided into two distinct classes: liquid oils, such as olive oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, or sunflower oil; and plastic fats, such as lard, shortening, butter, and margarine. The physical nature of the fatty material is unimportant for some uses, but the consistency is a matter of consequence for other products. As a dressing on green salads, for example, a liquid oil is used to provide a coating on the ingredients; a plastic fat such as lard or butter would be unsuitable. Spreads for bread, foods that require a highly developed dough structure, or icings and fillings with a plastic structure require plastic fats rather than liquid oils.
For reasons related to both history and climate, there are pronounced geographic patterns of consumption of fats and oils. The ancestors of the present inhabitants of central and northern Europe obtained their edible fats almost exclusively from domestic animals. The food habits and the cuisine depended on the availability of plastic fats; and butter, lard, margarine, and shortening continue to be their primary fatty food materials. In contrast, population pressures in the older civilizations of the Orient and the Mediterranean countries of southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East have long since made extensive raising of livestock impractical, necessitating that the edible oils of these regions be derived primarily from intensively cultivated vegetable crops. In the tropics, conditions are relatively unfavourable for livestock but are well suited to culture of a variety of oil-bearing plants, many of which flourish in the wild state. In contrast to most high-population-density tropical areas, cattle abound in India. Clarified butter or ghee is an important item of Indian cookery, and a hydrogenated shortening called vanaspati is designed to reproduce the coarsely crystalline plastic texture of ghee.
More than 90 percent of the world production of fats and oils is used in edible products, and the objective of most processing steps is to convert crude fats of low palatability or undesirable physical form into refined products that meet the regional requirements for food fats. The annual consumption of visible fats—such as lard, butter, shortening, or salad oils that have been separated from the original animal or plant source—ranges from 18 to 25 kg (40 to 55 pounds) per person in various highly industrialized European countries and is 23 kg per person in the United States. For the world as a whole, the average available supply is 10 kg per person; and in many areas of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia, the annual consumption is 5 kg or less per person.
About 40 percent of the dietary fat in the developed countries comes from isolated fats and oils, with 60 percent obtained from basic foods, whereas in the less developed countries most of the dietary fat is obtained from fruits, cereals, vegetables, dairy products, and meats, and relatively little is consumed in the form of isolated fat products. The quantities of fats and oils in conventional food supplies vary over wide ranges. Most fruits and vegetables have from 0.1 to 2.0 percent fat, with the exception of avocados and olives, which are exceptional in their high fat content. Cereals range from 1 to 7 percent, and nuts may contain as much as 70 percent fat.
General methods of extraction
The raw materials for the fat and oil industry are animal by-products from the slaughter of cattle, hogs, and sheep; fatty fish and marine mammals; a few fleshy fruits (palm and olive); and various oilseeds. Most oilseeds are grown specifically for processing to oils and protein meals, but several important vegetable oils are obtained from by-product raw materials. Cottonseed is a by-product of cotton grown for fibre, and corn oil is obtained from the corn germ that accumulates from the corn-milling industry, whose primary products are corn grits, starch, and syrup.
Fats may be recovered from oil-bearing tissues by three general methods, with varying degrees of mechanical simplicity: (1) rendering, (2) pressing with mechanical presses, and (3) extracting with volatile solvents.
Rendering
Fruits and seeds
The crudest method of rendering oil from oleaginous fruits, still practiced in some countries, consists of heaping them in piles, exposing them to the sun, and collecting the oil that exudes. In a somewhat improved form, this process is used in the preparation of palm oil; the fresh palm fruits are boiled in water, and the oil is skimmed from the surface. Such processes can be used only with seeds or fruits (such as olive and palm) that contain large quantities of easily released fatty matter.
Animal fats
The rendering process is applied on a large scale to the production of animal fats such as tallow, lard, bone fat, and whale oil. It consists of cutting or chopping the fatty tissue into small pieces that are boiled in open vats or cooked in steam digesters. The fat, gradually liberated from the cells, floats to the surface of the water, where it is collected by skimming. The membranous matter (greaves) is separated from the aqueous (gluey) phase by pressing in hydraulic or screw presses; additional fat is thereby obtained. The residue is used for animal feed or fertilizer. Several centrifugal separation processes were developed in the 1960s. Cells of the fatty tissues are ruptured in special disintegrators under close temperature control. The protein tissue is separated from the liquid phase in a desludging type of centrifuge, following which a second centrifuge separates the fat from the aqueous protein layer. Compared with conventional rendering, the centrifugal methods provide a higher yield of better-quality fat, and the separated protein has potential as an edible meat product.