persistent depressive disorder
- Also called:
- dysthymia
persistent depressive disorder, mental disorder characterized by symptoms of depression that are present for two or more years. Although captured by different names and diagnoses throughout history, persistent depressive disorder was first recognized as such in the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) in 2013.
History
Lasting depression as a mental condition has been known to exist for thousands of years, dating back as far as ancient Greece. The word dysthymia, derived from the Greek word for “despondency,” was characterized in detail by Hippocrates (460–375 bce) in his documentation of the melancholic temperament. German psychiatrist Carl Friedrich Flemming (1799–1880) first used the word dysthymia in a psychiatric context in 1844 to distinguish mood disorders from other types of mental conditions. In 1863 Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–99) specified dysthymia as a chronic form of melancholia.
In 1968 the concept of long-term depression was categorized in the DSM-II as neurotic depression, a personality disorder that emphasized intractable traits rather than symptomatology. However, with the arrival of the DSM-III in 1980, all chronic depression lasting longer than two years was combined into dysthymic disorder, a diagnosis reflecting disease status rather than a personality state. In 2013 this disorder was combined with the diagnosis chronic major depression to create persistent depressive disorder, a broad diagnosis capturing any state of depression with a duration of more than two years.
Symptoms
According to the DSM-5 a persistent depressive disorder diagnosis requires the presence of a depressed mood for at least two years. The criteria differ for children and adolescents, for whom only a single year of depressed or irritable mood is required. At least two of the following symptoms must also be present: poor appetite or overeating, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating or making decisions, or feelings of hopelessness. Persistent depressive disorder can also manifest in other ways, particularly feelings of guilt and worry, avoidance of social activities, and loss of interest in daily activities.
Despite significant symptom overlap, persistent depressive disorder differs from major depressive disorder in terms of severity and duration. Those with persistent depressive disorder may exhibit symptoms of depression that are not severe enough to reach the diagnostic threshold for major depressive disorder. In addition, the majority of depression symptoms must exist for most of the day, every day, for at least two weeks in major depressive disorder, whereas individuals with persistent depressive disorder must exhibit symptoms for two years or longer with no remission for a period of more than two months. However, the two disorders are not mutually exclusive, and major depressive episodes can occur before or during the onset of persistent depressive disorder.
Causes
It is generally thought that depression in all forms is the result of some combination of biological, social, and psychological factors; however, no definitive cause has been identified. Though exact estimates vary, studies have found the lifetime prevalence of persistent depressive disorder to be about 3 percent in Western countries, with females being affected twice as often as males. Biological factors, such as imbalances in serotonin and other neurotransmitters, have been linked to depression in general, but research on biological causes of persistent depressive disorder, specifically, has been limited. Genetic factors appear to play a significant role; the familial connection for persistent depressive disorder is even stronger than it is for major depressive disorder. Other risk factors that have been identified for persistent depressive disorder include neuroticism, states of high anxiety, and stress.
Treatment and prevention
Similar to other depressive disorders, psychotherapy (or talk therapy) and medication are effective measures for treating persistent depressive disorder. Common medications used for persistent depressive disorder include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and atypical antidepressants. Psychotherapy may involve education about depression and the development of cognitive and lifestyle changes to deal with symptoms.
Although there is no definitive way of preventing persistent depressive disorder, identifying and addressing risk factors can lead to more favourable outcomes. Taking measures to control stress and boost self-esteem can increase one’s ability to ward off depression, and early treatment can prevent depressive episodes from lapsing into major long-term problems.