Some properties of the boron group elements
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The table gives a list of some properties of the boron group elements.
| boron | aluminum | gallium | indium | thallium | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Density at 25 °C. | |||||
| atomic number | 5 | 13 | 31 | 49 | 81 |
| atomic weight | 10.811 | 26.982 | 69.723 | 114.818 | 204.383 |
| colour of element | brown | silver-white | gray-blue | silver-white | blue-white |
| melting point (°C) | 2,075 | 660.32 | 26.76 | 156.6 | 304 |
| boiling point (°C) | 4,000 | 2,519 | 2,204 | 2,072 | 1,473 |
| density: solid (grams per cubic centimetre at 20 °C) | 2.34 | 2.699 | 5.904* | 7.31 | 11.85 |
| density: liquid (grams per millilitre) | 2.37 | 2.375 | 6.095 | 7.02 | 11.22 |
| valence | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3, 1 | 3, 1 |
| mass number of most common isotopes (terrestrial abundance, percent) | 10 (19.92), 11 (80.12) | 27 (100) | 69 (60.108), 71 (39.892) | 113 (4.29), 115 (95.71) | 203 (29.52), 205 (70.48) |
| radioactive isotopes (mass numbers) | 7–9, 12–19 | 21–26, 28–41 | 60–68, 70, 72–86 | 97–112, 114–135 | 176–202, 204, 206–212 |
| colour imparted to flame | green | colourless | violet | blue | green |
| colour of ions in solution: +3 | — | colourless | colourless | colourless | colourless |
| colour of ions in solution: +1 | — | — | — | — | colourless |
| heat of fusion (calories per mole/kilojoules per mole) | 12,000 (50) | 2,560 (10.7) | 1,340 (5.59) | 779 (3.26) | 1,000 (42) |
| specific heat (joules per gram Kelvin) | 1.026 | 0.897 | 0.373 | 0.233 | 0.129 |
| electrical resistivity at 20–25 °C (microhm-centimetres) | >1012 | 2.7 | 14 | 8 | 15 |
| hardness (Mohs' scale) | 9.3 | 2.75 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 1.2 |
| crystal structure at 20 °C | alpha-rhombohedral, beta-rhombohedral, tetragonal | face-centred cubic | orthorhombic | face-centred tetragonal | hexagonal close-packed |
| radius: atomic (angstroms) | 0.87 | 1.18 | 1.36 | 1.56 | 1.56 |
| radius: ionic (angstroms) | 0.41 | 0.68 | 0.76 | 0.94 | 1.03 |
| ionization energy (electron volts): first | 800.6 | 577.5 | 578.8 | 558.3 | 589.4 |
| ionization energy (electron volts): second | 2,427.10 | 1,816.70 | 1,979.30 | 1,820.70 | 1,971 |
| ionization energy (electron volts): third | 3,659.70 | 2,744.80 | 2,963 | 2,704 | 2,878 |
| ionization energy (electron volts): fourth | 25,025.80 | 11,577 | 6,180 | 5,210 | — |
| oxidation potential for oxidation from the 0 to +3 oxidation state at 25 °C (volts) | — | 1.68 | 0.53 | 0.34 | −1.25 |
| electronegativity (Pauling) | 2.04 | 1.61 | 1.81 | 1.78 | 1.62 |
Compounds of the boron group elements
Salts of M2+ ions
The ionization energies suggest that the formation of salts of the M2+ ions might be feasible. At first glance, such appears to be the case, since gallium compounds with the formula GaX2 (X representing chlorine, bromine, or iodine) can be made, and similar cases occur with the other metals of this group. Such compounds, however, are generally found to be of mixed oxidation state; that is, they contain metal atoms in both the one and the three oxidation states, a condition symbolized as M+(M3+X4)−. The nearest approach to M2+ derivatives occurs in gallium sulfide, selenide, and telluride, which are made by heating gallium with stoichiometric amounts of sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, respectively. Studies of the structure of these compounds by X-ray methods show that they contain (Ga-Ga)4+ units arranged in a layerlike lattice; the coupling of the gallium atoms in such a manner pairs the electrons available for the bonds and thereby explains the diamagnetism of the compounds (diamagnetism is a property associated with paired electrons).
The large amount of energy required to remove three electrons completely from a boron atom makes the formation of salts containing the bare B3+ cation impossible; even water of hydration associated with such ions would be too highly deformed to be stable, and hence the aquated ion B3+(aq) is unknown. Much less energy is required to promote electrons from 2s orbitals into 2p orbitals in boron atoms, with the result that boron compounds are always covalent. The boron orbitals are hybridized to either the sp2 (when boron forms bonds with three other atoms, for example, in borazine) or the sp3 (when boron forms bonds with four atoms, as in metal borohydrides) configuration (see chemical bonding: Valence bond theory: Hybridization).
Hydrated ions in the +3 oxidation state
Although simple M3+ cations are uncommon in anhydrous compounds of the boron group elements, the hydrated (combined with water) triply charged ions of aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium are well known in water solution. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies reveal that six water molecules are held strongly by these positive ions in solution, and their salts often can be crystallized from solution combined with six water molecules. The high charge on the central cation of such hydrates induces the ionization of protons, or hydrogen nuclei, on the coordinated water molecules and thereby leads to the formation of basic salts. This reaction (called hydrolysis) is represented in the following equations:
in which, as before, M represents an ion of one of the boron group elements, n is the number of water molecules joined to it, (HO)M represents a hydroxide group joined to the metal ion, and H+(aq) is a hydrated hydrogen ion. In these and other equations, the arrows pointing in two directions indicate that the chemical reactions can proceed both ways, depending on the reaction conditions. When acid is added to such aqueous solutions, it depresses the hydrolytic processes by reversing the above reactions. At high acid concentrations, however, complex anions (negative ions) are sometimes formed, especially with the aqueous hydrogen halides. The following equation illustrates this: Ga3+(aq) + HX (conc.) → GaX4−, X being chlorine, bromine, or iodine. Intermediate complex ions, MX2+ and MX2+, can be detected in several cases.