antagonism, in ecology, an association between organisms in which one benefits at the expense of the other. As life has evolved, natural selection has favoured organisms that are able to efficiently extract energy and nutrients from their environment. Because organisms are concentrated packages of energy and nutrients in themselves, they can become the objects of antagonistic interactions. Although antagonism is commonly thought of as an association between different species, it may also occur between members of the same species through competition and cannibalism.
One way of understanding the diversity of antagonistic interactions is through the kinds of hosts or prey that species attack. Carnivores attack animals, herbivores attack plants, and fungivores attack fungi. Other species are omnivorous, attacking a wide range of plants, animals, and fungi. Regardless of the kinds of foods they eat, however, there are some general patterns in which species interact. Parasitism, grazing, and predation are the three major ways in which species feed on one another. The parasite lives on and feeds off its host, usually decreasing the host’s ability to survive but not killing it outright. Grazing species are not as closely tied to their food source as parasites and often vary their diet between two or more species without directly killing them. Predators, however, capture and kill members of other species for food.
Antagonistic interactions may also involve defensive strategies that make use of chemical and physical deterrents. Many plant species may secrete chemicals into the soil to prevent other plants from taking root nearby or into their tissues to deter grazing. Some plants and animals may develop physical structures, such as hard coverings and spines, to discourage grazers and predators. In addition, some species possess adaptations that help them resemble others. Such adaptations may be used for both attack and defense (see mimicry).