classification theory, principles governing the organization of objects into groups according to their similarities and differences or their relation to a set of criteria. Classification theory has applications in all branches of knowledge, especially the biological and social sciences. Its application to mathematics is called set theory (q.v.).
According to strict logic, organizing a domain of objects into classes must leave no two classes with any object in common; also, all of the classes together must contain all of the objects of the domain. This theory, however, disregards the frequency in practice of borderline cases—i.e., objects that can with equal correctness be accepted or rejected as members of two otherwise exclusive classes. This is often seen in biology, where the theory of evolution implies that some animal populations will have characteristics of two distinct species.
In practice, the principles used to classify a domain of objects depend upon the nature of the objects themselves. In forming classes of perceptual objects—e.g., the class of green things or of elephants—the perceived similarities and differences between the objects are important. The classification of such objects requires a standard object against which all others are compared in including them within or excluding them from a class. A domain of objects that never change is classified morphologically (i.e., according to form or structure). If, on the other hand, the domain comprises changing or developing objects—e.g., evolving plants or animals—then it is likely to be classified genetically (i.e., in reference to crucial developmental stages). Sometimes objects are classified not so much by their characteristics as by the degree to which they possess them; minerals, for example, may be classified by their varying hardnesses rather than by the characteristic of hardness itself. Finally, classification by differences of quantity and of quality establishes equalities and inequalities of order or rank between different single objects within a domain as well as between different combinations of them.