ancient Rome

Table of Contents

Introduction & Top Questions
Rome from its origins to 264 bc
- Early Rome to 509 bc
  - Early Italy
  - Historical sources on early Rome
  - Rome’s foundation myth
  - The regal period, 753–509 bc
- Early centuries of the Roman Republic
  - Foundation of the republic
  - The struggle of the orders
  - The consulship
  - The dictatorship
  - The Senate
  - The popular assemblies
  - The plebeian tribunate
  - The Law of the Twelve Tables
  - Military tribunes with consular power
  - Social and economic changes
  - The Latin League
- Roman expansion in Italy
  - The Samnite Wars
  - The Pyrrhic War, 280–275 bc
The middle republic (264–133 bc)
- The first two Punic Wars
  - First Punic War (264–241 bc)
  - Second Punic War (218–201 bc)
- The establishment of Roman hegemony in the Mediterranean world
  - Roman expansion in the eastern Mediterranean
  - Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean
  - Explanations of Roman expansion
- Beginnings of provincial administration
The transformation of Rome and Italy during the Middle Republic
- Citizenship and politics in the middle republic
- Culture and religion
- Demographic and economic developments
- Social changes
- Rome and Italy
The Late Republic (133–31 bc)
- The aftermath of the victories
  - Changes in provincial administration
  - Social and economic ills
- The reform movement of the Gracchi (133–121 bc)
  - The program and career of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
  - The program and career of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
- The republic (c. 121–91 bc)
  - War against Jugurtha
  - The career of Gaius Marius
- Wars and dictatorship (c. 91–80 bc)
  - Events in Asia
  - Developments in Italy
  - Civil war and the rule of Lucius Sulla
- The Roman state in the two decades after Sulla (79–60 bc)
  - The early career of Pompey
  - Pompey and Crassus
  - Political suspicion and violence
- The final collapse of the Roman Republic (59–44 bc)
  - Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
  - Political maneuvers
  - Civil war
  - The dictatorship and assassination of Caesar
- The Triumvirate and Octavian’s achievement of sole power
Intellectual life of the Late Republic
- Grammar and rhetoric
- Law and history
- Philosophy and poetry
The Early Roman Empire (31 bc–ad 193)
- The consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians
  - The establishment of the principate under Augustus
  - The Roman Senate and the urban magistracies
  - The equestrian order
  - Administration of Rome and Italy
  - Administration of the provinces
  - Emperor worship
  - The army
  - Foreign policy
  - Economic life
  - Augustan art and literature
  - Appraisal of Augustus
  - The succession
- Growth of the empire under the Flavians and Antonines
  - The year of the four emperors
  - The Flavian emperors
  - The early Antonine emperors: Nerva and Trajan
  - Hadrian and the other Antonine emperors
- The empire in the 2nd century
  - Trend to absolute monarchy
  - Political life
  - Rome and Italy
  - Developments in the provinces
- The creation of a unified civilization
  - Urban centres
  - Latinization
  - Limits of unification
  - Cult of the emperors
  - The economic factor
  - The army
  - Cultural life
The Later Roman Empire
- The dynasty of the Severi (ad 193–235)
  - Septimius Severus
  - Caracalla
  - Macrinus
  - Elagabalus and Severus Alexander
- Religious and cultural life in the 3rd century
  - The rise of Christianity
  - Cultural life from the Antonines to Constantine
- Military anarchy and the disintegration of the empire (235–270)
  - Succession of emperors and usurpers
  - The barbarian invasions
  - Difficulties in the East
- Economic and social crisis
- The recovery of the empire and the establishment of the dominate (270–337)
  - The Illyrian emperors
  - Diocletian
  - Struggle for power
  - The reign of Constantine
- The Roman Empire under the 4th-century successors of Constantine
  - The rule of Constantine’s sons
  - The reign of Julian
  - The reign of Valentinian and Valens
  - The reign of Gratian and Theodosius I
  - Social and economic conditions
  - The remnants of pagan culture
  - The Christian church
- The eclipse of the Roman Empire in the West (c. 395–500) and the German migrations
  - Invasions in the early 5th century
  - The beginning of Germanic hegemony in the West
  - Barbarian kingdoms
  - Analysis of the decline and fall

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

Roman Forum: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

How the Roman Empire was founded

The video thumbnail image shows an ancient drawing of a gladiator holding a shield and spear.

Roman expansion in Italy from 298 to 201 bce

The western Mediterranean during the Punic Wars

Roman war galley

Hannibal's daring strategy against Rome explained

How ancient Romans honoured their dead relatives…by feeding them

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ancient Rome: Media

ancient state, Europe, Africa, and Asia

Videos

How the Roman Empire was founded

How the Roman Empire was founded

Learn more about the Roman Empire.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The video thumbnail image shows an ancient drawing of a gladiator holding a shield and spear.

The not-so-Hollywood history of the gladiator

What were Russell Crowe and Paul Mescal getting themselves into?

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Hannibal's daring strategy against Rome explained

Hannibal's daring strategy against Rome explained

Learn about Hannibal's campaign against Rome, beginning with his attack on Saguntum.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail Yale University Art Gallery (2005.131.165)

How ancient Romans honoured their dead relatives…by feeding them

How ancient Romans honoured their dead relatives…by feeding them

Learn more about religion in ancient Rome.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

What led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire?

What led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire?

Learn why some experts believe that lead poisoning (from water pipelines) or malaria...

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Freesurf69/Dreamstime.com

History of Rome's Colosseum

History of Rome's Colosseum

Overview of the Colosseum, Rome.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Sborisov/Dreamstime.com

Learn about the effects of local underground construction on the Colosseum and the preservation efforts to save the monument

Learn about the effects of local underground construction on the Colosseum and the preservation efforts to save the monument

Studying the effects of local construction on the Colosseum, Rome.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Sborisov/Dreamstime.com

Learn how Cleopatra used her influence over Julius Caesar to stay in power

Learn how Cleopatra used her influence over Julius Caesar to stay in power

Learn how Cleopatra used her influence over Julius Caesar to stay in power.

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What was Julius Caesar's role in the Gallic Wars?

What was Julius Caesar's role in the Gallic Wars?

Overview of the Gallic Wars, with a focus on Julius Caesar's victory over Vercingetorix.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Learn about the use of gamma-ray spectroscopy to identify the quarry that was the source of granite found in ancient Roman ruins

Learn about the use of gamma-ray spectroscopy to identify the quarry that was the source of granite found in ancient Roman ruins

See how gamma-ray spectroscopy is used to identify the quarry that was the source...

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How Hannibal's conquests led to the fall of Carthage

How Hannibal's conquests led to the fall of Carthage

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The rise and fall of the Roman Empire

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire

Learn how the tactics and discipline of the Roman army enabled the Roman Empire to...

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Behold the Athenian Acropolis and Roman Colosseum and drive down Appian Way on the Roman road system

Behold the Athenian Acropolis and Roman Colosseum and drive down Appian Way on the Roman road system

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The rise and fall of the Phoenician civilization

The rise and fall of the Phoenician civilization

Overview of the Phoenicians.

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Images

Roman Forum

Roman Forum

The Temple of Saturn (foreground) and the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman...

© spooh/iStock.com

Roman Forum: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

Roman Forum: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the ancient ruins of the Roman Forum, Rome.

© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Roman expansion in Italy from 298 to 201 bce

Roman expansion in Italy from 298 to 201 bce

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The western Mediterranean during the Punic Wars

The western Mediterranean during the Punic Wars

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Roman war galley

Roman war galley

A Roman war galley with infantry on deck; in the Vatican Museums.

Alinari/Art Resource, New York

Battle of Zama

Battle of Zama

Battle of Zama, oil on canvas by an unknown artist after Giulio Romano, 16th century;...

© Fine Art Images/age fotostock

Gaius Marius

Gaius Marius

Gaius Marius on the Ruins of Carthage, engraving by John Vanderlyn, 1842.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Digital File Number: LC-DIG-pga-00037)

Sulla

Sulla

Sulla.

© José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Pompey

Pompey

Pompey, bust c. 60–50 bce; in the Ny Carlsberg...

© Carole Raddato

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar, marble sculpture by Andrea di Pietro di Marco Ferrucci, c....

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Bequest of Benjamin Altman, 1913, 14.40.676, www.metmuseum.org

Marcus Junius Brutus

Marcus Junius Brutus

Marcus Junius Brutus.

© Ruslan Gilmanshin/Dreamstime.com

Augustus

Augustus

Augustus, statue in Rome.

© vladacanon/iStock.com

exterior wall of the Ara Pacis

exterior wall of the Ara Pacis

Marble relief on the exterior wall of the Ara Pacis, Rome.

© Prapton/Dreamstime.com

Tiberius

Tiberius

Marble bust of Tiberius.

© kmiragaya/stock.adobe.com

Caligula

Caligula

Caligula, marble bust.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1914, 14.37, www.metmuseum.org

Vespasian

Vespasian

Vespasian, bust in the Pushkin Fine Arts Museum, Moscow.

Shakko

Extent of the Roman Empire in 117 ce

Extent of the Roman Empire in 117 ce

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Hadrian

Hadrian

White marble statue of the Roman emperor Hadrian, from an excavation at Sagalassos...

Marc Waelkens/Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project

Rome: Colosseum

Rome: Colosseum

The Colosseum, Rome.

© Mapics/stock.adobe.com

Trier, Germany: Roman imperial baths

Trier, Germany: Roman imperial baths

The hot room of the Roman imperial baths at Trier, Germany.

© Pavle/stock.adobe.com

Thamugadi

Thamugadi

Roman ruins at Thamugadi, Algeria.

© Anton Ivanov Photo/stock.adobe.com

Trajan's Column

Trajan's Column

Trajan's Column, Rome.

© CorinaDanielaObertas/stock.adobe.com

Trajan's Column

Trajan's Column

Detail of Trajan's Column, Rome, depicting the Roman emperor's victories beyond the...

© Tiziano Casalta/Dreamstime.com

Leptis Magna: arch of Septimius Severus

Leptis Magna: arch of Septimius Severus

Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, Libya.

AdstockRF

Caracalla

Caracalla

Caracalla, marble, Roman, 212–217 ce; in the...

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Samuel D. Lee Fund, 1940 (40.11.1a), www. metmuseum.org

Elagabalus

Elagabalus

Elagabalus, marble portrait bust, c. 221.

José Luiz

Valerian surrendering to Shāpūr I

Valerian surrendering to Shāpūr I

The surrender of the emperor Valerian to the Persian king Shāpūr I, rock relief,...

© lukakikina/Fotolia

Diocletian

Diocletian

Diocletian.

Jebulon

Constantine I

Constantine I

Portrait head of Constantine I, marble, Roman, c. 325–370 ce;...

Photograph by AlkaliSoaps. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, bequest of Mary Clark Thompson, 1923 (26.229)

routes of barbarian invasions of Europe

routes of barbarian invasions of Europe

Map of routes taken by Germanic peoples across Europe during the so-called barbarian...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Tarragona, Spain: Roman amphitheatre

Tarragona, Spain: Roman amphitheatre

Roman amphitheatre at Tarragona, Spain.

© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Detail of the basilica of Constantine, Rome.

Detail of the basilica of Constantine, Rome.

GEKS

ancient Roman bath

ancient Roman bath

Ancient Roman bath at Hamat Gader, Israel.

© Shootov Igor/Shutterstock.com

Catalonia

Catalonia

Remains of ancient Roman fortifications in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain.

© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Verus, Lucius

Verus, Lucius

Marble head of the co-emperor Lucius Verus, Roman, c. 166–170 ce;...

Photograph by philophilosopher. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, Rogers Fund, 1913 (13.227.1)

Roman masonry arch bridge

Roman masonry arch bridge

Roman masonry arch bridge, with spans up to 29 metres (98 feet), built over the Tagus...

© A.G.E. FOTOSTOCK

The Roman arena at Arles, Fr.

The Roman arena at Arles, Fr.

Courtesy of Air France

Roman ruins

Roman ruins

Roman ruins, Djemila, Algeria.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Roman ruins of the main street and the west gate, or triumphal arch, Thamugadi, Alg.

Roman ruins of the main street and the west gate, or triumphal arch, Thamugadi, Alg.

Robert Harding Picture Library, London

statue of Augustus

statue of Augustus

A 1st-century ce statue of Augustus standing...

© Pcphotography69/Dreamstime.com

Temple of Venus

Temple of Venus

Temple of Venus at Baalbek, 3rd century ce.

Fototeca Unione, Rome

fresco

fresco

Polyphemus and Galatea in a landscape, Roman fresco from the imperial villa of Agrippa...

Photograph by AlkaliSoaps. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, Rogers Fund, 1920 (20.192.17)

Roman mosaic of gladiators fighting.

Roman mosaic of gladiators fighting.

Photos.com/Thinkstock

mathematicians of the Greco-Roman world

mathematicians of the Greco-Roman world

This map spans a millennium of prominent Greco-Roman mathematicians, from Thales...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

ancient Britain

ancient Britain

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Roman Gaul

Roman Gaul

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

parts of a circular arch

parts of a circular arch

Parts of a circular arch.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

ancient Rome

ancient Rome

Ancient Roman road shown in cross section.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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