United Kingdom

Table of Contents

Introduction & Quick Facts
Land
- Relief
  - The highland zone
  - The lowland zone
- Drainage
- Soils
- Climate
- Plant and animal life
People
- Ethnic groups
- Languages
- Religion
- Settlement patterns
  - Rural settlement
  - Urban settlement
- Demographic trends
  - Population growth
  - Migration patterns
Economy
- Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
  - Agriculture
  - Forestry
  - Fishing
- Resources and power
  - Minerals
  - Energy
- Manufacturing
- Finance
- Trade
- Services
- Labour and taxation
- Transportation and telecommunications
Government and society
- Constitutional framework
- Regional government
- Local government
- Justice
- Political process
- Security
- Health and welfare
  - The National Health Service
  - Cash benefits
- Housing
- Education
  - Primary and secondary education
  - Private schools
  - Higher education
Cultural life
- Daily life and social customs
- The arts
- Cultural institutions
- Sports and recreation
- Media and publishing
  - Newspapers
  - Broadcasting
History
- Ancient Britain
  - Pre-Roman Britain
    - Neolithic Period
    - Bronze Age
    - Iron Age
  - Roman Britain
    - The conquest
    - Condition of the province
      Army and frontier
      Administration
    - Roman society
      Economy
      Towns
      Villas
      Religion and culture
    - The decline of Roman rule
- Anglo-Saxon England
  - The invaders and their early settlements
    - The social system
    - The conversion to Christianity
    - The golden age of Bede
  - The heptarchy
    - The supremacy of Northumbria and the rise of Mercia
    - The great age of Mercia
    - The church and scholarship in Offa’s time
    - The decline of Mercia and the rise of Wessex
  - The period of the Scandinavian invasions
    - Viking invasions and settlements
    - Alfred’s government and his revival of learning
  - The achievement of political unity
    - The reconquest of the Danelaw
    - The kingdom of England
    - The church and the monastic revival
  - The Anglo-Danish state
    - The Danish conquest and the reigns of the Danish kings
    - The reign of Edward the Confessor and the Norman Conquest
- The Normans (1066–1154)
  - William I (1066–87)
    - Resistance and rebellion
    - The introduction of feudalism
    - Government and justice
    - Church–state relations
    - William’s accomplishments
  - The sons of William I
    - William II Rufus (1087–1100)
    - Henry I (1100–35)
  - The period of anarchy (1135–54)
    - Matilda and Stephen
    - Civil war
  - England in the Norman period
- The early Plantagenets
  - Henry II (1154–89)
    - Government of England
    - Struggle with Thomas Becket
    - Rebellion of Henry’s sons and Eleanor of Aquitaine
  - Richard I (1189–99)
  - John (1199–1216)
    - Loss of French possessions
    - Struggle with the papacy
    - Revolt of the barons and Magna Carta
    - Economy and society
- The 13th century
  - Henry III (1216–72)
    - Minority
    - Early reign
    - The county communities
    - Simon de Montfort and the Barons’ War
    - Later reign
  - Edward I (1272–1307)
    - Law and government
    - Finance
    - The growth of Parliament
    - Edward’s wars
    - Domestic difficulties
  - Social, economic, and cultural change
- The 14th century
  - Edward II (1307–27)
  - Edward III (1327–77)
    - The Hundred Years’ War to 1360
    - Domestic achievements
    - Law and order
    - The crises of Edward’s later years
  - Richard II (1377–99)
    - The Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
    - John Wycliffe
    - Political struggles and Richard’s deposition
  - Economic crisis and cultural change
- Lancaster and York
  - Henry IV (1399–1413)
    - The rebellions
    - Henry and Parliament
  - Henry V (1413–22)
    - The French war
    - Domestic affairs
  - Henry VI (1422–61 and 1470–71)
    - Domestic rivalries and the loss of France
    - Cade’s rebellion
    - The beginning of the Wars of the Roses
  - Edward IV (1461–70 and 1471–83)
  - Richard III (1483–85)
  - England in the 15th century
- England under the Tudors
  - Henry VII (1485–1509)
    - Economy and society
    - Dynastic threats
    - Financial policy
    - The administration of justice
  - Henry VIII (1509–47)
    - Cardinal Wolsey
    - The king’s “Great Matter”
    - The Reformation background
    - The break with Rome
    - The consolidation of the Reformation
    - The expansion of the English state
    - Henry’s last years
  - Edward VI (1547–53)
  - Mary I (1553–58)
  - Elizabeth I (1558–1603)
    - The Tudor ideal of government
    - Elizabethan society
    - Mary, Queen of Scots
    - The clash with Spain
    - Internal discontent
- The early Stuarts and the Commonwealth
  - England in 1603
    - Economy and society
    - Government and society
  - James I (1603–25)
    - Triple monarchy
    - Religious policy
    - Finance and politics
    - Factions and favourites
  - Charles I (1625–49)
    - The politics of war
    - Peace and reform
    - Religious reform
    - The Long Parliament
    - Civil war and revolution
    - Commonwealth and Protectorate
- The later Stuarts
  - Charles II (1660–85)
    - The Restoration
    - War and government
    - The Popish Plot
    - The exclusion crisis and the Tory reaction
  - James II (1685–88)
    - Church and king
    - The Revolution of 1688
  - William III (1689–1702) and Mary II (1689–94)
    - The revolution settlement
    - A new society
    - The sinews of war
  - Anne (1702–14)
    - Whigs and Tories
    - Tories and Jacobites
- 18th-century Britain, 1714–1815
  - The state of Britain in 1714
  - Britain from 1715 to 1742
    - The supremacy of the Whigs
    - Robert Walpole
      George II and Walpole
      Foreign policy
      Religious policy
      Economic policies
    - The electoral system
    - Walpole’s loss of power
  - Britain from 1742 to 1754
    - The Jacobite rebellion
    - The rule of the Pelhams
    - Domestic reforms
  - British society by the mid-18th century
    - Joseph Massie’s categories
    - Urban development
    - Change and continuity
    - The revolution in communications
  - Britain from 1754 to 1783
    - Conflict abroad
    - Political instability in Britain
    - The American Revolution
    - Domestic responses to the American Revolution
  - Britain from 1783 to 1815
    - William Pitt the Younger
    - Economic growth and prosperity
    - The Industrial Revolution
    - Britain during the French Revolution
    - The Napoleonic Wars
    - Imperial expansion
- Great Britain, 1815–1914
  - Britain after the Napoleonic Wars
    - State and society
    - The political situation
  - Early and mid-Victorian Britain
    - State and society
    - The political situation
      Whig reforms
      Chartism and the Anti-Corn Law League
      Peel and the Peelite heritage
      Palmerston
      Gladstone and Disraeli
    - Economy and society
    - Cultural change
      The development of private life
      Religion
      Leisure
  - Late Victorian Britain
    - State and society
    - The political situation
      Gladstone and Chamberlain
      The Irish question
      Split of the Liberal Party
      Imperialism and British politics
      The return of the Liberals
      The international crisis
    - Economy and society
    - Family and gender
    - Mass culture
- Britain from 1914 to the present
  - The political situation
    - World War I
      The Asquith coalition
      Lloyd George
    - Between the wars
      The election of 1918
      Harsh peace and hard times
      Ireland and the return of the Conservatives
      The Baldwin era
      Baldwin and the abdication crisis
      Foreign policy and appeasement
    - World War II
      The phases of war
      Political developments
    - Britain since 1945
      Labour and the welfare state (1945–51)
      Economic crisis and relief (1947)
      Withdrawal from the empire
      Conservative government (1951–64)
      Labour interlude (1964–70)
      The return of the Conservatives (1970–74)
      Labour back in power (1974–79)
      The Margaret Thatcher government (1979–90)
      The Falkland Islands War, the 1983 election, and privatization
      Racial discrimination and the 1981 England riots
      The 2001 England riots
      The “Troubles” in Northern Ireland
      “Thatcherism”
      The government of John Major (1990–97)
      “Black Wednesday,” epidemic scandals, and Major’s “Citizens Charter”
      “Mad cow disease”
      The Tony Blair government (1997–2007)
      The struggle for control of Labour
      New Labour, the repeal of Clause IV, and the “third way”
      Navigating the European monetary system and the EU Social Chapter
      The Good Friday Agreement
      London’s local government, House of Lords reform, and devolution for Scotland and Wales
      The royal family’s “annus horribilis,” the death of Princess Diana, and the Millennium Dome
      The battle for the soul of the Conservative Party
      Response to the September 11 attacks
      Weapons of mass destruction and the Iraq War
      The Gordon Brown government (2007–10)
      Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition rule (2010–15)
      The U.K. general election of 2010
      First-past-the-post referendum
      Intervention in Libya
      News of the World hacking scandal
      The 2011 riots, the European sovereign debt crisis, and Cameron’s veto of changes to the Lisbon Treaty
      The 2012 London Olympics, Julian Assange’s embassy refuge, and the emergence of UKIP
      The birth of George, rejection of intervention in Syria, and regulation of GCHQ
      Euroskepticism
      Scottish independence referendum
      Economic recovery
      David Cameron on his own (2015–16)
      The U.K. general election of 2015
      The “Brexit” referendum
      The premiership of Theresa May (2016–19)
      The resignation of Cameron, the rise of May, and a challenge to Corbyn’s leadership of Labour
      Triggering Article 50
      The Manchester arena bombing and London bridge attacks
      The snap election campaign
      The 2017 U.K. general election
      The Grenfell Tower fire, a novichok attack in Salisbury, and air strikes on Syria
      The wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle, the Chequers plan, and Boris Johnson’s resignation
      EU agreement and Parliamentary opposition to May’s Brexit plan
      Objections to the Irish backstop and a challenge to May’s leadership
      Parliamentary rejection of May’s plan, May’s survival of a confidence vote, and the Independent Group of breakaway MPs
      Parliament rejects May’s plan again
      “Indicative votes,” May’s pledge to resign, a third defeat for her plan, and a new deadline
      The Boris Johnson government
      Boris Johnson’s ascent, the December 2019 snap election, and Brexit
      The coronavirus pandemic
      “Partygate”
      Further scandal and Johnson’s resignation
      The premiership of Liz Truss
      Ascent to office
      The death of Elizabeth II
      Abrupt resignation
      The premiership of Rishi Sunak
  - Society, state, and economy
    - State and society
    - Economy and society
    - Family and gender
    - Mass culture
Sovereigns of Britain
Prime ministers of Great Britain and the United Kingdom

References & Edit History Facts & Stats

Images, Videos & Interactives

For Students

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland summary

United Kingdom: Media

Videos

Why do the British drive on the left side of the road?

Learn why the British drive on the left side of the road.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Lunamarina/Dreamstime.com

Learn about the history and traditions of the House of Commons Chamber, also the functions of its members

Exploring the chamber of the House of Commons and the functions of its members.

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn about the House of Lords and know the composition and roles of its members

Exploring the chamber of the House of Lords and the roles of its members.

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Understand how a bill becomes a law in the UK Parliament

Learn how a bill becomes a law in the United Kingdom.

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Understand how a general election in the United Kingdom works

Learn how general elections work in the United Kingdom in the early 21st century.

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Who was Richard the Lionheart?

Profile of Richard I.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail Photos.com/Getty Images

The conflicting legacies of King Henry VIII

Overview of Henry VIII's reign.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

The turbulent love life of Henry VIII

Overview of Henry VIII's six marriages.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail The Art Institute of Chicago; Gift of Kate S. Buckingham, reference no. 1938.311 (CC0)

Explore the great men from Elizabeth I's reign such as Francis Bacon, Walter Raleigh, and William Shakespeare

Towering English figures in exploration, science, and the arts during the reign of...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Hear about the journey of women's suffrage in Britain from the first mass-suffrage petition (1866) to the passage of the 1918 Representation of the People Act

From Britain's first mass-suffrage petition (1866) to the passage of the 1918 Representation...

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

What was the Battle of Britain?

Learn about the Battle of Britain, between Britain's Royal Air Force and Germany's...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Listen Winston Churchill delivering his first speech as the Prime Minister, 1940

Winston Churchill addressing Parliament in his first speech as prime minister, May...

Video: Public Domain

Discover how advancements in railway transport and textile weaving contributed to the Industrial Revolution

Among the many industrial advancements of the British was the use of weaving machines...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Explore London city's famous and historical landmarks, neighborhood, markets, shopping at Bates, St. Paul's Cathedral, Notting Hill, and Tower Bridge

Take a video tour of London.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © David Clarke/Dreamstime.com

$Learn how the United Kingdom measures the safety and the impact on energy security of extracting shale gas via fracking$

Learn how the United Kingdom measures the safety and the impact on energy security of extracting shale gas via fracking

Examining the ways in which the United Kingdom measures the safety and profitability...

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn about the structure of the U.K. Parliament - the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the monarch

Exploring the three branches of the U.K. Parliament—the House of Commons, the House...

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

See the original Stamp Act of 1765 in the United Kingdom Parliamentary Archives

Examining the original Stamp Act of 1765 issued by Great Britain, in the United Kingdom...

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Know about different types of elections and understand the electoral process in the United Kingdom

Learn about the voting process and different types of elections in the United Kingdom.

Video: © UK Parliament Education Service (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Images

United Kingdom

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Big Ben, London

Big Ben, London.

British Isles terminology

Map showing the terminology commonly used to describe the British Isles, the United...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England

Stonehenge, prehistoric circular earthwork and stone religious site, Wiltshire, England;...

Aerofilms Ltd., London

Ravenscraig Castle, Kirkcaldy, Scotland

Ravenscraig Castle, Kirkcaldy, Scotland.

Malcolm Fife/The Edinburgh Photographic Library

Windermere, Cumbria, England

Windermere, Cumbria, England.

Julie Fryer/Bruce Coleman Ltd.

North Channel coast, Northern Ireland

The North Channel coast south of Torr Head, Northern Ireland.

Ben Nevis, Scotland

Ben Nevis from Loch Linnhe, Scotland.

Colour Library International

Ben Macdui

Ben Macdui, Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland.

Loch Tummel, Scotland

Loch Tummel, Perth and Kinross, Scotland.

Val Vannet

Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland

Part of the Mourne Mountains astride Down district and Newry and Mourne district,...

G.F. Allen—Bruce Coleman

Esthwaite Water in the Lake District, England

Mountain-encircled Esthwaite Water in the Lake District of northwestern England.

Tom Wright/FPG

Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, Wales

Coastline, Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, Wales.

James P. Rowan

Exmoor National Park, West Somerset, England

Heather-covered hills in Exmoor National Park, West Somerset, England.

A.F. Kersting

Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, England

Chalk cliffs of Flamborough Head on the North Sea, East Riding of Yorkshire, northern...

River Severn

River Severn at Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England.

Chris Bayley

River Dee, Scotland

River Dee, near Braemar, Scotland.

Deus Ex

River Tweed, Scotland

A view from the banks of the River Tweed, southeastern Scotland.

Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England

River Thames at Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England.

D.J. Clayworth

River Ouse, Cambridgeshire, England

River Ouse near Saint Ives, Cambridgeshire, England.

William M. Connolley

bluebells

Spring flowering of bluebells (Hyacinthoides nonscripta) in a deciduous...

red grouse

Red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) standing among heather in a field...

Atlantic salmon in the River Dee

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) returning from the sea to spawn in the River...

Cathedral Church of St. Peter

Cathedral Church of St. Peter at Exeter, Devon, England.

Colour Library International

Hambleden, Buckinghamshire, England

Village of Hambleden, Buckinghamshire, England.

port of Aberdeen, Scotland

Ships serving North Sea oil platforms at dock in the port of Aberdeen, Scotland.

Milt and Joan Mann/CameraMann International

sheep grazing on the Antrim coast, Northern Ireland

Sheep grazing on the Antrim coast, Northern Ireland.

Milt and Joan Mann/Cameramann International

Houses of Parliament and Big Ben, London

Houses of Parliament (Westminster Palace) and Big Ben, London, from Westminster Bridge.

Dennis Marsico/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

House of Commons

Chamber of the House of Commons in the Houses of Parliament, London.

Civil Service Local—Cabinet Office/© Crown copyright (Open Government License 3.0)

House of Lords

Chamber of the House of Lords in the Houses of Parliament, London.

Civil Service Local—Cabinet Office/© Crown Copyright (Open Government License 3.0)

Viscountess Nancy Witcher Astor

Viscountess Nancy Witcher Astor, the first woman to sit in the House of Commons.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

West End theater district, London

The theater district in the West End, London.

Globe Theatre, London

Celebratory performance marking the opening of the Globe Theatre in London, June...

ROTA/AP Images

BBC headquarters, London

Workers leaving British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) headquarters in London.

ancient Britain

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Anglo-Saxon England

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Luttrell Psalter

Plowing with oxen, illustration from the Luttrell Psalter, 14th century.

The British Library/Robana/REX/Shutterstock.com

Richard III

Richard III, king of England.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Thomas Cardinal Wolsey

Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, detail of a painting by Sampson Strong, 1526; in Christ Church,...

Courtesy of the Governing Body of Christ Church, Oxford

Hans Holbein: Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn, drawing by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1534–35; in the British Museum,...

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

Clement VII

Clement VII, detail from a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo; in the National Museum...

Alinari/Art Resource, New York

Lollards sermons

Lollard sermons, 15th century.

The British Library (Public domain)

Thomas Cranmer

Thomas Cranmer, detail of an oil painting by Gerlach Flicke, 1545; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Hans Holbein the Younger: Sir Thomas More

Sir Thomas More, oil on panel by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1527; in the...

Photos.com/Getty Images

Jane Seymour

Jane Seymour, portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1536; in the Kunsthistorisches...

Courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Hans Holbein the Younger: Anne of Cleves

Hans Holbein the Younger: Anne of Cleves, oil painting by Hans Holbein the...

Thomas Cromwell

Thomas Cromwell, engraving after a painting by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1537....

The Print Collector—Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Edward VI: coronation

Coronation of Edward VI, stained glass, Mansion House, London.

E&E Image Library/Heritage Image/age fotostock

Nicholas Ridley

Nicholas Ridley, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 1555; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William Shakespeare

Portrait of William Shakespeare.

Sir Walter Raleigh's conquest of St. Joseph, Trinidad

Sir Walter Raleigh's conquest of the city of St. Joseph, Trinidad.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Mary, Queen of Scots

Mary, Queen of Scots.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LOT 13407, no. 181)

Sir Francis Drake

Sir Francis Drake, oil on panel, after an engraving attributed to Jodocus Hondius,...

Spanish Aramada

Drawing or engraving of the Invincible Spanish Armada, July 1588.

Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex

Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, detail of a painting after Marcus Gheeraerts...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Puritan family

Depiction of an English Puritan family, 16th century.

Heritage-Images/age fotostock

Daniel Mytens: portrait of James I

James I, oil on canvas by Daniel Mytens, 1621; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

frontispiece of the King James Bible

Frontispiece of the King James Version of the Bible, engraving by Cornelius Boel,...

Rare Book and Manuscript Library/University of Pennsylvania

Gunpowder Plot members

Members of the Gunpowder Plot.

Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury

Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury.

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

Thomas Howard, 2nd earl of Arundel

Thomas Howard, 2nd earl of Arundel, engraving.

Bettmann/Corbis

George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham

George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, detail of an oil painting by William Larkin,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Anthony van Dyck: Charles I at the Hunt

Charles I at the Hunt, oil on canvas by Anthony van Dyck, c. 1635; in the...

Giraudon/Art Resource, New York

Henrietta Maria

Henrietta Maria, detail of an oil painting after Sir Anthony Van Dyck; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Sir Edward Coke

Sir Edward Coke, engraving by Jacobus Houbraken, 1741.

Yale Center for British Art, In Memory of John V. McCarthy (B2002.3.2)

Michael van der Gucht: John Hampden

John Hampden, engraving by Michael van der Gucht in E. Ward's History of the...

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

William Laud

William Laud, archbishop of Canterbury.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1917, 17.50.83, www.metmuseum.org

G. Glover, after Edward Bower: John Pym

John Pym, detail of an engraving by G. Glover, 1644, after a portrait by Edward Bower.

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

England during the Civil Wars

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Marston Moor

Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Marston Moor during the English Civil Wars.

Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group/REX/Shutterstock.com

Sir Thomas Fairfax

Sir Thomas Fairfax, commander of the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil...

Jupiterimages Corporation

Battle of Naseby

Strategic plan for the Battle of Naseby, June 14, 1645; from Anglia Rediviva...

The British Library/Robana/REX/Shutterstock.com

Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Naseby

Oliver Cromwell leading the New Model Army at the Battle of Naseby during the English...

Sir Henry Vane the Elder

Sir Henry Vane the Elder, detail of a portrait after Michiel Janszoon van Mierevelt;...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

1st baron Holles of Ifield

1st Baron Holles of Ifield, painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Robert Walker: Henry Ireton

Henry Ireton, detail of an oil painting attributed to Robert Walker; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

John Bradshaw

John Bradshaw, mezzotint by an unknown artist.

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

Robert Walker: portrait of Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell, painting by Robert Walker; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell.

John Lambert

John Lambert, portrait after Robert Walker; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Richard Cromwell

Richard Cromwell, miniature by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

George Monck

George Monck.

Jupiterimages Corporation

Charles II

Charles II entering London after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, undated...

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

Sir Peter Lely: portrait of Charles II

Charles II, detail of a painting by Sir Peter Lely, c. 1675; in the collection of...

Courtesy of the Duke of Grafton and the Royal Academy of Arts

Robert White: John Bunyan

John Bunyan, pencil drawing on vellum by Robert White; in the British Museum, London.

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

Titus Oates in the pillory

Illustration of Titus Oates in the pillory.

Museum of London/Heritage Images/age fotostock

Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st earl of Shaftesbury

Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st earl of Shaftesbury, detail of an oil painting after John...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Sir Peter Lely: Arthur Capel, 1st earl of Essex

Arthur Capel, 1st earl of Essex, detail from a diptych by Sir Peter Lely; in the...

Courtesy of Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Munich

Algernon Sidney

Algernon Sidney, detail of an oil painting after J. van Egmont, 18th century; in...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Godfrey Kneller: painting of James II

James II, detail of a painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller, c. 1685; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

duke of Monmouth

Duke of Monmouth, oil painting after Willem Wissing, c. 1683; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

capture of the duke of Monmouth

James Scott, duke of Monmouth, captured after the Battle of Sedgemoor; undated engraving.

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

Willem Wissing: Mary of Modena

Mary of Modena, detail of an oil painting by Willem Wissing, c. 1685; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William III

William III.

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

William III accepting the Declaration of Rights

William III accepting the Declaration of Rights.

What did Committees of Correspondence do during the American Revolution?

Market stalls in the centre of Covent Garden square, London, 1753.

William III at the Battle of the Boyne

King William III of England leading his forces to victory over the former king James...

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

Jan van Huchtenburg: William III and Maximilian II Emanuel

William III, king of England, conferring with Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria,...

Robert Harley, 1st earl of Oxford

Robert Harley, 1st earl of Oxford.

From Robert Harley Earl of Oxford; Prime Minister 1710—1714, A Study of Politics and Letters in the age of Anne, by E.S. Roscoe, 1902

George I

George I, detail of an oil painting after Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1714; in the National...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, at the Battle of Blenheim

John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, at the Battle of Blenheim, 1704; from a...

John Closterman: portrait of John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough

John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, painting attributed to John Closterman;...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of Godolphin

Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of Godolphin, detail of a painting after Sir Godfrey Kneller;...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Henry St. John, viscount Bolingbroke

Henry St. John, viscount Bolingbroke, oil on canvas by an unknown French artist,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

L.G. Blanchet: James Edward, the Old Pretender

James Edward, the Old Pretender, detail of a painting attributed to L.G. Blanchet;...

Courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh

Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Thomas Phillips: 2nd Earl Grey

2nd Earl Grey, painting attributed to Thomas Phillips, about 1820; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William E. Gladstone

William E. Gladstone.

Culver Pictures

House of Commons membership change

Membership change, by county, in the House of Commons as a result of the Reform Act...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Queen Victoria's coronation

The archbishop of Canterbury placing St. Edward's Crown on Victoria's head during...

Robert Wilson: Chartist demonstration

Chartist demonstration, Kennington Common, 1848; illustration from The Life and...

From The Life and Times of Queen Victoria, volume II, by Robert Wilson (Cassell and Company, Limited, 1900)

John Bright

John Bright.

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

John Linnell: portrait of Sir Robert Peel

Sir Robert Peel, detail of an oil painting by John Linnell, 1838; in the National...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Lord Palmerston

Lord Palmerston, c. 1860.

BBC Hulton Picture Library

William Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli

New prime minister William Gladstone (left) and outgoing prime minister Benjamin...

Photos.com/Jupiterimages

Benjamin Disraeli

Benjamin Disraeli.

Harry Furniss: Getting Gladstone's Collar Up

Getting Gladstone's Collar Up, cartoon by Harry Furniss, c. 1876–84.

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

automatic spinning mule cotton manufacture

Cotton manufacture c. 1830 using an automatic spinning mule of the type devised by...

Wellcome Library, London

Frank Holl: Joseph Chamberlain

Joseph Chamberlain, detail of an oil painting by Frank Holl, 1886; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

H.H. Asquith

H.H. Asquith.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George, 1908.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Bonar Law

Bonar Law, 1919.

BBC Hulton Picture Library

Stanley Baldwin

Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, 1932.

Bassano and Vandyk

duke and duchess of Windsor

The duke of Windsor (formerly Edward VIII) and duchess of Windsor on their wedding...

Camera Press/Globe Photos

Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill, photograph by Yousuf Karsh, 1941.

Karsh/Woodfin Camp and Associates

Clement Attlee

Clement Attlee.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Aneurin Bevan

Aneurin Bevan, c. 1950.

ANL/REX/Shutterstock.com

Elizabeth II: opening of Parliament

Elizabeth II reading a speech from the throne at the state opening of Parliament,...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Edward Heath

Edward Heath giving a victory wave after receiving his seal of office from the queen.

Frank Barratt/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Margaret Thatcher

British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1983.

Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher

Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher at the White House, Washington, D.C., July 17,...

Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library

Tony Blair

Tony Blair, 2005.

British general election of 2005

Results of the British general election held May 5, 2005.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Nick Clegg and David Cameron

Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg (left) with Prime Minister David Cameron, May 12,...

Prime Minister's Office, Crown copyright

Prince William and Catherine, duke and duchess of Cambridge

Prince William and his bride, Catherine, leaving Westminster Abbey after their wedding,...

Tom Hevezi/AP Images

London riots of 2011

Police engaging rioters and looters in London's Camden borough, 2011.

hughepaul

United Kingdom Brexit referendum

The majority vote by region in the 2016 referendum on whether the United Kingdom...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Liz Truss

Liz Truss (centre) attending a Conservative Party leadership campaign event in Marden,...

Henry Nicholls—Reuters/Alamy

Yousuf Karsh: Lord Beveridge

Lord Beveridge, photograph by Yousuf Karsh.

Camera Press/Globe Photos

Ramsay MacDonald

Ramsay MacDonald.

Central Press Photos Ltd.

Sex Pistols

One of Britain's most influential punk rock groups, the Sex Pistols, performing in...

Egbert, from an undated engraving

Aethelwulf, coin, 9th century; in the British Museum

Peter Clayton

Aethelbald (Ethelbald)

Hulton Getty Picture Collection/Tony Stone Images

Aethelberht (Ethelbert)

Hulton Getty Picture Collection/Tony Stone Images

Aethelred I

Aethelred I (Ethelred).

Hulton Getty Picture Collection/Tony Stone Images

Alfred the Great

Alfred the Great, king of Wessex.

The British Library (Public domain)

Edward the Elder

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Athelstan

Athelstan, detail of a manuscript illumination, 10th century; in the collection of...

Courtesy of the Master and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge; photograph, The Conway Library, Courtauld Institute Galleries, London

Edmund I

Antiqua Print Gallery/Alamy

Eadred, shown on a 10th-century silver penny; in the British Museum

Peter Clayton

Eadwig

Eadwig.

Antiqua Print Gallery/Alamy

Edgar, detail from the New Minster Charter, 966; in the British Library (Vesp. MS....

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Library

Saint Edward the Martyr, silver penny, 10th century; in the British Museum

Peter Clayton

Ethelred II, coin, 10th century; in the British Museum.

Peter Clayton

Sweyn I, coin, 10th century; in the Royal Collection of Coins and Medals, Nationalmuseet,...

The National Museum of Denmark, Department of Ethnography

Edmund II

Edmund II, known as Edmund Ironside.

Antiqua Print Gallery/Alamy

Canute

Canute, line engraving by George Vertue.

The Granger Collection, New York

Harold I.

Mary Evans Picture Library

Hardecanute

Mary Evans Picture Library

Saint Edward the Confessor, detail of a miniature from Peter Langtoft's Chronicle,...

The British Library (Public Domain)

Harold II

Harold II, silver penny with design attributed to Theodoric, 1066; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William I

William I.

William II

William II, drawing by Matthew Paris from a mid-13th-century manuscript; in the British...

Reproduced by permission of the British Library

Henry I

Henry I, miniature from a 14th-century manuscript; in the British Library (Cottonian...

By permission of the British Library

Stephen

Henry II and Thomas Becket

Henry II (left) disputing with Thomas Becket (centre), miniature from a 14th-century...

By permission of the British Library

Richard I

Richard I, detail of tomb effigy in the abbey church of Fontevrault-l'Abbaye, France.

Giraudon/Art Resource, New York

John of England

John of England, from an early 14th-century illumination.

The Granger Collection, New York

Henry III

Seal of Henry III, showing the king enthroned; in the British Museum.

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

Edward I

Edward I.

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Edward II

Edward II, detail of a watercolour manuscript illumination, mid-15th century; in...

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Library

Edward III

Edward III, watercolour, 15th century; in the British Library (Cotton MS. Julius...

By permission of the British Library

Richard II

Richard II renouncing his throne in 1399, surrounded by knights in armour and nobles...

Henry IV, detail of a manuscript illumination from Jean Froissart's Chronicles,...

By permission of the British Library

Henry V

Henry V, painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Henry VI

Henry VI, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Edward IV

Edward IV, portrait by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Photos.com/Thinkstock

Edward V, Edward IV, and Elizabeth Woodville

Edward V (lower right) with his father, Edward IV, and mother, Elizabeth Woodville,...

Courtesy of the Lambeth Palace Library; photograph, Royal Academy of Arts

Richard III, detail of a painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Henry VII

Henry VII, painting by an unknown artist, 1505; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Henry VIII, detail of a painting by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1538; in...

Courtesy of the Duke of Rutland; photograph by the Royal Academy of Arts, London

Edward VI

Edward VI as prince, detail of a panel painting by an unknown artist, c. 1546; in...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Mary I.

Three Lions/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I, oil on panel attributed to George Gower, about 1588.

Photos.com/Thinkstock

Charles I

Charles I, king of Great Britain and Ireland.

William III

William III, painting after W. Wissing; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Anne of England

Anne of England, oil on canvas attributed to Michael Dahl, c. 1690.

The Granger Collection, New York

George II

George II, detail of an oil painting by Thomas Hudson, c. 1737; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

George III

King George III, c. 1800.

George IV

George IV as prince regent, detail of an unfinished portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William IV, detail from a painting by Sir Martin Archer Shee; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Victoria of England.

Bridgeman/Art Resource, New York

Edward VII

Edward VII.

The Bettmann Archive/BBC Hulton

George V

George V.

Camera Press/Globe Photos

George VI

George VI.

Keystone/FPG

Elizabeth II

Elizabeth II, 2007.

Bill Ingalls/Goddard Space Flight Center/NASA

Charles III

Charles, prince of Wales (later Charles III), 2015.

Ben A. Pruchnie/Getty Images

Robert Walpole

Robert Walpole, detail of an oil painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller, c. 1710–15;...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington

Mary Evans Picture Library

Pelham, Henry

Pelham, detail of a portrait by John Shackleton, c. 1752; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, from a steel engraving, 1836

The Granger Collection, New York

William Cavendish, 4th duke of Devonshire

Mary Evans Picture Library

John Stuart, 3rd earl of Bute

John Stuart, 3rd earl of Bute, detail of an oil painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds;...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

George Grenville

George Grenville, detail of an engraving by James Watson after a painting by William...

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

Charles Watson Wentworth, 2nd marquess of Rockingham

Charles Watson Wentworth, 2nd marquess of Rockingham.

Mary Evans Picture Library

William Pitt, the Elder

William Pitt, the Elder, detail of a painting from the studio of W. Hoare, 1754;...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd duke of Grafton

Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd duke of Grafton, after an original painting by J. Hopper,...

Mary Evans Picture Library

Lord North

Lord North, detail of a portrait by Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

William Petty-Fitzmaurice, 1st marquess of Lansdowne, from a steel engraving, 1836,...

The Granger Collection, New York

Portland, detail of an engraving by John Murphy after a painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

William Pitt the Younger

William Pitt the Younger, detail of an oil painting by John Hoppner; in the National...

Sidmouth, detail of a watercolour by G. Richmond, 1833; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Baron Grenville, detail of a portrait by John Hoppner; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Spencer Perceval, detail of an oil painting by G.F. Joseph, 1812; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

2nd Earl of Liverpool, detail of an oil painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

George Canning, painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence and Richard Evans; in the National...

Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London

Frederick John Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon, engraving of a portrait by Sir Thomas...

Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington

Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington, oil on canvas by Sir Thomas Lawrence.

The Granger Collection, New York

Lord Melbourne

Lord Melbourne, detail of an oil painting by J. Partridge, 1844; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

John Russell

John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, detail of a painting by F. Grant, 1853; in the National...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Edward Stanley, 14th earl of Derby.

The Granger Collection, New York

Aberdeen, detail of an oil painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1828; in the collection...

Courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh

Robert Cecil, 3rd marquess of Salisbury

BBC Hulton Picture Library/Globe

Rosebery, ink drawing by an unknown artist; in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh. Purchased 1929

Arthur James Balfour

British statesman Arthur James Balfour, c. 1900.

Bassano and Vandyk

Campbell-Bannerman

BBC Hulton Picture Library

Asquith

BBC Hulton Picture Library

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George.

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Neville Chamberlain

Neville Chamberlain, photograph by Bassano.

Camera Press/Globe Photos

Clement Attlee

Clement Attlee, photograph by Yousuf Karsh.

Eden, photograph by Yousuf Karsh

Karsh/Woodfin Camp and Associates

Harold Macmillan

Harold Macmillan.

Camera Press/Globe Photos

Douglas-Home

Keystone/FPG

Harold Wilson

Harold Wilson.

Central Press/Pictorial Parade

James Callaghan

James Callaghan.

Central Press/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher.

Yutaka Nagata/United Nations

John Major

John Major, 1990.

Tony Blair

Tony Blair.

Gordon Brown

Gordon Brown, 2007.

Cameron, David

David Cameron.

Theresa May

Theresa May, 2015.

UK Home Office (CC BY 2.0)

Boris Johnson

Boris Johnson.

Courtesy, Office of the Mayor of London

Liz Truss

Conservative Party leader Liz Truss's agenda won her few friends, and she resigned...

Ian Forsyth/Getty Images

Rishi Sunak

British politician and financier Rishi Sunak, 2022.

Daniel Leal/Getty Images

British Prime Minister Keir Starmer

Keir Starmer, 2017.

Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, as used in England

The chief components of armorial bearings...

Drawing by Wm. A. Norman, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

England

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

England

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

European Union

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Audio

National anthem of the United Kingdom

The instrumental version of the national anthem of the United Kingdom.

Interactives

United Kingdom: Ethnic composition

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Immigrant population admitted

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Religious affiliation

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Urban-rural

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Age breakdown

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Major import sources

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

United Kingdom: Major export destinations

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

VIEW MORE in these related Britannica articles: