Shandong falls within the North China climatic region, which extends from the Huai River in the south to the Hebei-Liaoning border in the north. It is characterized by a continental climate with cold winters and hot, dry summers. Climatic variation prevails, however, between the peninsular and inland zones of the province.

The inland zone, especially in its northern sections, is subject to the full effect of the winter monsoon, when cold, northwesterly winds continue through December. The wind direction gradually reverses by March, and warmer, southeasterly winds prevail throughout the summer. In the inland zone, annual precipitation ranges from about 20 inches (500 mm) in northwest Shandong to 40 inches (1,000 mm) as one approaches the mouth of the Huang He. Of the total annual precipitation, 70 to 80 percent falls in summer. The interior areas of Shandong are also subject to severe winter and spring dust storms, sometimes followed by droughts, and frequent summer floods. Temperatures in the inland zone range from a mean January reading of 25 °F (−4 °C) in the northern interior to a mean of 82 °F (28 °C) in July. This area is subject to freezing temperatures during one to three months, with frosts common from late October to April. Rivers often freeze over for extended periods during the winter months. In the interior zone the annual growing season extends from 200 to 250 days.

The maritime orientation of the Shandong Peninsula tends to modify the climatic extremes of the inland zone. The northern half of the peninsula is subject to winter snow and rainstorms and to extensive coastal ice from the mouth of the Huang He to Weihai and Yantai (Chefoo); the southern half is somewhat warmer. Mean January temperatures range from 25 °F (−4 °C) on the northern coast of the peninsula to 32 °F (0 °C) in the south. There is less temperature difference during the hot summer months, when the mean July temperature is 79 °F (26 °C), but the ports of Yantai and Qingdao are cooler than interior stations. Maximum summer temperature in these ports rarely exceeds 77 °F (25 °C). Sea fog is common along the north and south coasts of the peninsula. Because of the high relative humidity, annual mean precipitation over the peninsula reaches 31 inches (790 mm), with less seasonal contrast than in the interior of the province. The heaviest precipitation occurs on the south-facing slopes of the central and peninsular hill masses.

Plant and animal life

The limited natural vegetation that remains in the intensively cultivated inland zone of Shandong is found in minor depressions in the flat, alluvial landscape. Species there include reeds, grassy legumes, and several varieties of shrubs, notably tamarisk. Halophytic (salt-tolerant) vegetation is common in alkaline and saline soil areas along the coasts of the Bo Hai and southern Shandong near the Jiangsu border. Many of the halophytic shrubs are harvested for fuel and are used for salt manufacture. Lianliu, a shrub with long willowy branches, is used for basket weaving, while other plants are woven into thatch mattings and sunshades. Poplars, pines, and arborvitae (an aromatic evergreen tree of the cypress family) are planted around settlements, along roads, and on the coasts.

The mountainous zones of Shandong are almost completely deforested, with only a small part of the area covered by scattered deciduous and coniferous forests interspersed among barren, eroded hills. Several types of pine grow at higher elevations on rocky, shallow soils in association with alpine meadow species. On the lower slopes and in the valleys, mixed oak, elm, cedar, linden, ash, maple, and chestnut forests appear along with such economically important fruit trees as apple, pear, apricot, and peach. Other deciduous species found at the lower elevations include pagoda (or Chinese scholar) trees (Sophora japonica), white mulberries, Persian walnuts, silk trees, and acacia. For centuries Shandong forests were overharvested for fuel and timber, and natural regeneration became extremely difficult. Since 1949, aggressive reforestation efforts and closer regulation of timber harvesting have resulted in extensive growth.

Despite the obliteration of much of Shandong’s natural vegetation cover, the peninsular zone still exhibits an interesting mixture of northern and southern vegetation. Along with common northern plants, uniquely southern varieties such as wing nuts (trees of the walnut family), magnolias, and species of the genus Styrax are common. Some special plants found in the area, such as the Qingdao lily (Lilium tsingtauense), have been listed as endangered and have been protected.

Through long periods of human settlement, intensive cultivation, and destruction of forests, Shandong’s animal life has suffered drastic decline. Among the mammals found there today are roe deer and field and harvest mice; birds include mandarin ducks, dollar birds (belonging to the roller group), and large owls. Even with the attempts at reforestation since the 1950s, formerly extensive populations of native birds and mammals have almost vanished. Species of insects, beetles, and moths, however, are still unusually diverse and varied.

Population composition

Shandong’s population is predominantly Northern Mandarin-speaking and of Han (Chinese) origin, but there are small concentrations of Hui (Chinese Muslims) in Jinan, Zhoucun (near Zibo), Tai’an (south of Jinan), and Jining and Linqing (trading centres on the Grand Canal in western Shandong). The population, more than half of which is classified as rural, is fairly evenly distributed over the level, cultivated areas of the province.

Settlement patterns

The two largest cities are Qingdao and Jinan, followed by the Zibo conurbation, a leading mining and industrial zone at the northern edge of the central hill mass, about 50 miles (80 km) east of Jinan. Other major cities include Yantai and Weihai, ports and fishing centres on the northeast coast of the peninsula; Weifang, an industrial and commercial town on the central Jiaolai Plain; and Dezhou, a rail and highway hub and major supplier of electric power for the northern provinces.

The greatest rural population densities are found in three areas. The first is one of the earliest settled places in the province, where irrigation works were constructed as long ago as the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce); it lies along the foothills of the central hill mass. The second, the southwestern Heze-Qingdao-Jining area, is bounded on the northwest by the Huang He and on the southwest by the former course of the Huang He. This area was frequently subject to flooding but, because of its fertility and level terrain, gradually became densely settled. The third area comprises a fertile, irrigated strip along the north coast of the Shandong Peninsula.