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Most of Morocco lies at high elevations, averaging about 2,600 feet (800 metres) above sea level. Two chains of mountains divide eastern from Atlantic Morocco: the Rif Mountains in the north form a buffer along the Mediterranean coastline, whereas the Atlas Mountains create a barrier across the centre. The two parts of the country are connected by the narrow Taza Gap in the northeast as well as by roads that follow older traditional routes. The Atlas and Rif ranges were formed during the Paleogene and Neogene periods (between about 65 to 2.6 million years ago) by the folding and uplifting of sediment that had accumulated in the Tethys Sea, which, at that time, bordered the northern coast of Africa.

The Rif Mountains are geologically part of the cordilleras (mountain chains) reaching southward from the Iberian Peninsula of Europe, from which Africa was separated only after the Neogene Period (i.e., during the past 2.6 million years). The crescent-shaped range rises abruptly from a narrow Mediterranean coastal plain. Most of the limestone peaks in the Rif Mountains surpass 4,900 feet (1,500 metres) and rise to 8,058 feet (2,456 metres) at Mount Tidirhine.

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The Atlas Mountains comprise three distinct chains. The High Atlas (Haut Atlas), 460 miles (740 km) long, begins as small hills at the edge of the Atlantic, rises rapidly to more than 6,500 feet (2,000 metres), and reaches 13,665 feet (4,165 metres) at Mount Toubkal, Morocco’s highest point. The Middle Atlas (Moyen Atlas) trends away from the High Atlas in a northerly direction, rising to 10,958 feet (3,340 metres) at its crest. The Anti-Atlas extends southwestward from the High Atlas to the Atlantic.

East of the Rif and Atlas ranges is the Moulouya basin, a semiarid lowland created by the eroding force of the Moulouya River. Farther east are the High Plateaus (Hauts Plateaux) of eastern Morocco, which lie roughly between 3,900 and 4,250 feet (1,200 and 1,300 metres) in elevation and are extensions of landforms in neighbouring Algeria. The arid regions to the south and southeast of the Atlas constitute the northwestern limit of the Sahara, whereas a narrow transitional band at the base of the mountains is called the pre-Sahara.

Atlantic Morocco consists of plains formed of relatively fine sediments and plateaus of coarser deposits. The Sebou River basin, which lies in the northwest between the Rif Mountains and a line running roughly from Rabat to Fès, is a large alluvial plain. Its agricultural heart is known as the Gharb plain. South of the Rabat-Fès line, between the Atlas and the Atlantic Ocean, are a series of high plains known collectively as the Moroccan Plateau. These include the Saïs Plain near Fès and Meknès, the Tadla Plain to the northeast of Marrakech, the Haouz Plain west of Marrakech, and the broad Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains south of Casablanca. Between the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas ranges is the Sous River valley. Morocco’s coastline is regular and has few natural harbours. Before modern ports were constructed, sandbars and rocky reefs offshore made navigation difficult.

Drainage

Morocco’s mountains capture significant amounts of rain and snow on their windward slopes from storms coming in off the North Atlantic and give rise to numerous perennial watercourses. Indeed, the country has the most-extensive stream network in North Africa. Most streams arise either on the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains or on the southern slopes of the Rif Mountains and flow westward to the Atlantic Ocean. The Sebou is some 280 miles (450 km) long and has the largest volume of any Moroccan river. With its tributaries, the Sebou accounts for almost half of Morocco’s surface water resources. The Drâa, which rises in the High Atlas at the confluence of the Dadès and the Imini, is Morocco’s longest river, approximately 685 miles (1,100 km) in length; all but the headstreams and upper course are usually dry. At 345 miles (555 km) long, the Oum el-Rbia is another significant river, flowing from the Middle Atlas to the Atlantic. The Moulouya is the only major river flowing to the Mediterranean Sea; it originates on the eastern slopes of the Middle Atlas and flows about 320 miles (515 km) to its mouth, which lies near the Algerian frontier. The northern slopes of the Rif are drained by several short streams that also empty into the Mediterranean. Several minor streams originate on the dry eastern slopes of the High Atlas and flow into the Sahara; these include the Guir, the Rheris, and the Ziz. Although their volume is small, they have cut deep gorges. Since the 1930s Morocco’s streams have progressively been dammed for irrigation, hydroelectricity, and flood control.

Soils

A dark clay-marl soil known as tirs, which is found on the Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains, produces good yields of wheat and barley when precipitation is sufficient and can retain enough moisture to support summer pasture. Hamri, a light reddish siliceous soil found throughout the Saïs Plain surrounding Meknès and Fès, supports productive vineyards and can also produce good cereal yields, though it has poor moisture retention. Dhess is the main soil type of the Sebou basin. A silt-rich alluvial soil, it provides the foundation for much of Morocco’s modern irrigated agriculture. Other major soil types, less suitable for agriculture, are rmel, a sandy soil found in the Mamora Forest region east of Rabat and along much of the northern coast, and haroucha, a rocky soil found throughout Morocco’s semiarid regions.