French pastels

French pastels, with the sharpened lumps of pigment used by Ice Age artists, are the purest and most direct painting materials. Pastel pigments are mixed only with sufficient gum to bind them for drying into stick molds. Generally, they are used on raw strawboard or on coarse-grained tinted paper, although vellum, wood, and canvas have been also employed. These colors will not fade or darken, but, since they are not absorbed by the surface of the support, they lie as pigment powder and are easily smudged. Unfortunately, pastel colors lose their luminosity and tonality if fixed with a varnish and so are best preserved in deep mounts behind glass. Edgar Degas often overcame the fragile nature of true pastel painting by the unorthodox method of working on turpentine-soaked paper, which absorbed the powdery pigment.

Eighteenth-century portrait pastellists, such as Maurice-Quentin de La Tour, Jean-Baptiste Peronneau, Jean-Étienne Liotard, Rosalba Carriera, and Anton Raphael Mengs, blended the pigment with coiled paper stumps so the surface resembled that of a smooth oil painting. Later pastel painters, such as Degas, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Mary Cassatt, Everett Shinn, Odilon Redon, and Arthur Dove, contrasted broad masses of granular color, spread with the side of the stick, with broken contours and passages of loose cross-hatching and smudging. They often used the tinted ground as a halftone, and, according to the amount of manual pressure exerted on the chalk, they varied the degree of pigment opacity to extract a wide range of tints and shades from each pastel color.

Oil pastels

Oil pastels are pigments ground in mastic with a variety of oils and waxes. They are used in a similar way to that of French pastels but are already fixed and harder, producing a permanent, waxy finish. Oil-pastel paintings are generally executed on white paper, card, or canvas. The colors can be blended if the surface of the support is dampened with turpentine or if they are overworked with turpentine. They are popular for small preparatory studies for paintings.

Glass paintings

Glass paintings are executed with oil and hard resin or with watercolor and gum on glass sheets. These have been a folk art tradition in Europe and North America and, from the 15th to the 18th century, were regarded as a fine art in northern Europe, where they were revived by such painters as Willi Dirx, Ida Kerkovius, Lily Hildebrandt, Klee, Oskar Schlemmer, and Heinrich Campendonck. Colors are applied from the back in reverse order. Unpainted areas of glass are often coated with mercury, providing a mirror background to the colored images. That treatment creates the kind of illusionary, bizarre spatial relationship between the viewer and picture space sought by Italian artist Michelangelo Pistoletto with his use of photographic images fixed to a polished steel sheet. The colors seen through glass appear translucent, jewel-like, and, since they cannot be touched, even magical.

Ivory painting

Ivory painting was practiced in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe and America for portrait miniatures. These were generally oval-shaped and designed as keepsakes, lockets, and mantle pictures. They were painted under a magnifying glass in fairly dry watercolor or tempera stippling, with sable- or marten-hair brushes on thin, semitranslucent ivory pieces. Corrections were made with a needle. The velvet quality of their colors was enhanced, on the thinner ivories, by the glow produced by a gold leaf or tinted backing.

Lacquer

Lacquer has been a traditional Chinese medium for more than 2,000 years. It combines painting with intaglio relief. Linen-covered wood panels are coated with chalk or clay, followed by many thin layers of black or red lacquer tree resin. The surface is polished and a design engraved, which is then colored and gilded or inset with mother-of-pearl. Layers of compressed paper or molded papier-mâché have also provided supports. In China and Japan, lacquer has been used principally for decorating shrine panels, screens, caskets, panniers (large baskets), and musical instruments.

Sand, or dry, painting

Sand, or dry, painting is a traditional religious art of the North American Indians; it is still practiced in healing ceremonies among the Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona. Ground sandstone, natural ochers, mineral earths, and powdered charcoal are sprinkled onto a pattern marked into an area covered with yellow-white sand. The patient sits in the center of this vivid symbolic design of colored figurative and geometrical shapes. Following the ritual, the painting is destroyed. These “floor” pictures influenced Pollock in his horizontally spread action paintings.

Paper

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From the end of the 18th century, profiles and full-length group portraits were cut in black paper, mounted on white card, and often highlighted in gold or white. A silhouette (“shade”) might be first outlined from the sitter’s cast shadow with the aid of a physionotrace. American artist Kara Walker revived the silhouette technique with a series of controversial works that commented on race, gender, and class.

Collage

Collage was the Dada and Synthetic Cubist technique of combining labels, tickets, newspaper cuttings, wallpaper scraps, and other “found” surfaces with painted textures. Among the most lyrical and inventive works in this magpie medium are the so-called Merz collages by Kurt Schwitters. Frottage was Max Ernst’s method of taking paper rubbings from surfaces, unrelated to one another in real life, and combining them to create fantasy landscapes. Cut paper shapes, hand colored in gouache, were used by Matisse for his monumental last paintings; Piet Mondrian composed his famous Victory Boogie Woogie (1942–43) in colored-paper cutouts.

Mechanical mediums

The use of mechanical mediums in painting has run parallel to similar developments in modern music and drama. In the field of cybernetics, painters have programmed computers to permutate drawings, photographs, diagrams, and symbols through sequences of progressive distortion; and light patterns are produced on television screens by deliberate magnetic interference and by sound-wave oscillations. Artists have also explored the expressive and aesthetic possibilities of linear holograms, in which all sides of an object can be shown by superimposed light images. Painters are among those who have extended the boundaries of filmmaking as an art form. Examples include the Surrealist film fantasies created by Berthold Bartosch, Jean Cocteau, Hans Richter, and Salvador Dalí, by Schlemmer’s filmed ballets and Norman McLaren’s hand-painted abstract animations.

For some Conceptual artists, language was the medium. Words themselves—spelled out in neon or LED lights or projected on gallery or public walls—served as art for artists such as Joseph Kosuth, Lawrence Weiner, and Jenny Holzer.