ivory carving
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- ivory
- decorative art
- scrimshaw
- carving
ivory carving, the carving or shaping of ivory into sculptures, ornaments, and decorative or utilitarian articles. Elephant tusks have been the main source of ivory used for such carvings, although the tusks of walrus and other ivory-bearing mammals have also been worked.
From ancient times ivory has been considered an article of luxury because of its qualities of fine grain, creamy light colour, smooth texture, and soft lustre. Ivory has been carved in such widely varied cultures as those of ancient Egypt, China, Japan, and India. In the West the use of ivory can be traced almost continuously from prehistoric times through the Roman, Carolingian, Byzantine, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque periods up until modern times.
Until about 1900 all ivory carvers used much the same tools: an ax, adz, or chisel for removing the outer bark, or rind, from the tusk; a bucksaw or bow saw for cutting the trunk of the tusk into sections; a special tool called a float for paring the surface; and hand chisels, fretsaws, and gauges for actually carving the piece. The great change came with power-driven rotary saws for cutting and peeling the ivory and with dental drills for carving it easily and quickly. These machine tools spread from Europe to Asia in the mid-20th century and are now in universal use for carving ivory.
Ancient Western carvings
Carvings made of ivory, bone, and horn are numerous from certain periods of the Stone Age. Most of the carvings have been found in southern France, particularly in the Dordogne region. The earlier examples take the form of small nude female figures. The carvings of animals belong to the succeeding Magdalenian period, and many of these have great merit. The material used is reindeer horn, with the ivory of mammoth tusks also occasionally used. The incising, or engraving, of ivory probably developed later than carving in the round. The prehistoric engravings on ivory usually represent animals, often rendered in a masterly manner and combined to form scenes.
Elephant tusks and hippopotamus teeth were carved from a very early period in ancient Egypt. Many combs, hairpins, and other utensils dating from the predynastic and early dynastic periods have been found at various sites, and to the same period probably belong some crudely carved nude female figures that were likely worn as amulets to ward off evil or harm. Among the masterpieces of early Egyptian carving are two statuettes, both found at Abydos; one represents a king of the 1st dynasty, while the other depicts the 4th-dynasty king Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza. The Egyptians also incised pictures on flat slabs of ivory, and sometime after 3000 bce they introduced the technique of relief carving. Later Egyptian ivory work, much of it of fine quality, is mostly decorative in intention, being used for handles, spoons, and inlays for caskets and furniture.
The ancient Phoenicians used ivory from Syria and Africa, and they seem to have specialized in ivory inlays for woodwork, often overpainted or encrusted with lapis lazuli or glass. Among the earliest preclassical Aegean ivory carvings are small figures of acrobats found at Knossos in Crete and dating from the 16th century bce. Many ivory gaming boxes, mirror handles, and plaques carved in low relief with hunting or combat scenes have been found at Cyprus and at Sparta and Mycenae; they show a strong Asian stylistic influence and were probably made in Syria or on the south coast of Asia Minor.
No ivories of importance belonging to the early Classical period of Greece have survived, though it is known from ancient writers that they existed. The high point of Classical ivory carving was most certainly the colossal chryselephantine statues (i.e., ones partly made of ivory and gold) sculpted by Phidias in the 5th century bce; the statue depicting a seated Zeus was in the temple at Olympia, and a statue of a standing Athena was in the Parthenon at Athens. In the last centuries of the Roman Empire, ivory diptychs (i.e., a relief carved on two tablets connected by a hinge) were issued by the Roman emperors, by consuls upon their taking office each year, and by patrician families to celebrate a marriage.
Post-Classical Western carving
The most important surviving ivory carving from early in the Common Era is the Brescia casket (4th century ce); this is a small casket bearing relief carvings of scenes from the Old and New Testaments. Several reliefs on diptychs and panels having Christian subjects date from this period, and indeed depictions of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the Apostles form the main subject matter of European figurative ivory carvings for many centuries thereafter. No Byzantine ivory from the 7th to the 9th century survives, but there do exist several magnificent carved ivory reliefs from the 10th and 11th centuries. The figures are treated in a strongly classicizing, frozen, and monumental style. Byzantine statuettes from the late 11th and the 12th centuries show a more relaxed and fluid treatment of draperies, and their figures have elongated forms.
Northern European ivory carving revived during the Carolingian Renaissance, using walrus instead of elephant tusks. The Carolingians carved ivory into reliquaries, crucifixes, relief panels, and the book covers of psalters. New Testament scenes and figures were the almost invariable subject matter. These traditions continued during the Ottonian period of the 10th century, with several impressive situlae (holy-water buckets) carved with scenes from Christ’s life having survived. Romanesque ivory carvings of reliquaries, tau crosses, and bishops’ pastoral staffs display a multiplicity of styles, depending on the country of origin. During the Romanesque and the succeeding Gothic period, the West’s artistic emphasis shifted from the decoration and embellishment of sacred objects to the building of cathedrals, monumental paintings, and stained glass. Thus, from about the 12th century on, ivory carving ceased to be a major art or an important adjunct to religious or imperial liturgies. Nevertheless, ivory diptychs and triptychs carved with religious scenes continued to be produced in the Gothic style by many workshops. Ivory was also carved into caskets, combs, mirror cases, writing tablets, cups, dagger handles, and chess pieces. Sometimes scenes of courtly love or extracts from romances were carved onto the surface of these utilitarian objects.
Renaissance ivory carving marked a notable change from that of the Middle Ages in its technical sophistication and sensitivity. By this time ivory was rarely used except for domestic articles and inlay work, but there was a revival of interest in ivory carving in 17th-century Germany and Flanders, and many elaborate and sumptuously carved objects such as candelabra, plaques, statuettes, and drinking tankards were made by highly skilled artists. By the late 18th century, ivory carvings were regarded in Europe merely as curious and quaint decorative objects. In the 19th century, ivory came into prominence once more, chiefly for making forgeries of older, more valuable ivory objects. It was also used to make caskets, clock cases, and batons, as well as humbler objects such as snuffboxes, fan handles, and scent bottles. By the 20th century, with the use of machine-driven tools to cut ivory and the decay of unified stylistic traditions of decoration, ivory carving in the West had degenerated into a craft still possessed of technical sophistication but almost utterly lacking in aesthetic worth.